GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS, 



CLASS BOOK OF ASTRONOMY; 



ACCOMPANIED BY 



A CELESTIAL ATLAS 



BY ELIJAH H BURRITT, A.M. 



WITH AN INTEODUCTION, 

BY THOMAS DICK, LL. D., 
Author of the " Christian Philosopher," &c 



NEW YORK: 
HUNTINGTON & SAVAGE, 

216 Pearl Street. 



.-^^•Jtcwraif^ 




p. J, Huntington & Co. have recently published, in one small 
volume 16mo., suitable for children just entering upon the study of 
Astronomy, and introductory to the " Geography of the Heavens." 

ASTRONOMY FOR BEGINNERS, 
with a Map and 27 Engravings. By Francis Fellowes, A. M. 

''This is one of the most successful attempts to simplify sublime sci- 
ence to the comprehension of children. The author has employed an 
arran2;ement and style entirely new, with a clear and luminous pen, and 
in the happiest manner. 1 cordiallv commend to parents, to icacliers, 
and Uj children, this result of his labours." — Mrs. Sigourney. 



m^ 






Entered, 

according lo Act of Congress, in the year ie33, by 

F. J. HUNTINGTON, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut. 



PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. 



fn presenting a new edition of this work to the putiic, it is pro- 

r to point out several very important improvements which have 
jen mide. 

Dr. Dick of Scotland, so well known both in Europe and in this 
ounlry, as the author of the Christian Philosopher, and other 
scientific and popular works, has prepared, expressly for the 
work, an Introduction on the Advantages o^ the Study of Astrono- 
my. So far as authority and name can go to give currency to the 
work, and to establish the confidence of teachers in it as a proper 
text book, this simple fact, the publisher flatters himself, furnishes 
eve'ry testimonial which can be desired: beside which, the con- 
tributions of Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, cannot but be 
read with extreme interest. 

The work has been thoroughly revised, and the errors of for- 
mer editions corrected: subsequent to which, it has undergone a 
thorough examination from one of our most eminent mathema- 
ticians and astronomers. It will be observed that several new 
Chapters, on the important subjects of Planetary Motion, The Phe- 
nomena of Day and Night, The Seasons, The Tides, The Obliquity 
of the Ecliptic, The Precession of the Equinoxes, <^c., have been 
added. 

It is only necessary to observe the Atlas, to discover that the 
Plates have been engraved entirely anew, upon steel, and m a 
very superior and beautiful style. The figures of the Constella- 
tions are far more natural and spirited than those of the former 
Atlas. Especially, the characters which represent the stars are 
distinct, so that the pupil can discern, at once, to what class they 
belong. One new plate has been introduced, illustrating to the 
eye, <he Relative Magnitudes, Distances, and Positions of the dif- 
ferent bodies which compose the Solar System. This plate the 
teacher will find to be of very important service, and to aid him 
mud. in his verbal explanations. The arrangement of the Plates 
in the present Atlas, is such, that the teacher and pupil can easily 
place tnem, in mind, so as to have a distinct view of the entire 
surface ^i the visible Heavens. 

Such are the principal improvements which have been made 
in the virork. They speak for themseh^es. The publisher knows 
not whav could express his satisfaction with the past, or his hopes 
for the future success of the work, better than such improv menls. 



PREFACE. 



1 HAVE ,ong felt the want of a Class Book, which should be to the 
^arr}-- heavens, what Geography is to the earth ; a v'9rk that should 
exhibit, by means of appropriate delineations, the secDory of the 
heavens, the various constellations arranged in their order, point 
out and clasdry the principal stars, according to their magnitudes 
and places, and be accompanied, at the same time, with such fami- 
liar exercises and illustrations, adapted to recitation, as should bring 
it within the pale of popular instruction, and the scope of juvenile 
understandings. 

Such a work I have attempted to supply. I have endeavoured tc 
make the descriptions of the stars so familiar, and the instruction? 
for finding them' so plain, that the most inexperienced should no\ 
fail to understand them. In accomplishing this, I have relied but 
little upon globes and maps, or books. 1 very early discovered 
that it was an easy matter to sit down by a celestial globe, and, by 
means of an approved catalogue, and the help of a little graduated 
slip^of brass, make out, in detail, a minute description of the stars, 
and discourse quite familiarly of their position, magnitude and ar- 
rangement, and that when all this was done, I had indeed giv(!n 
the pupil a few additional facilities for finding those stars upon the 
artificial globe, but which left him, after all, about as ignorant of 
their apparent situation in the heavens, as before. I came, at length, 
to the conclusion, that any description of the stars, to be practicalj 
useful, must be made from a careful observation of the stars them- 
selves, and made at the time of observation. 

To be convinced of this, let any person sit down to a celestia.' 
^lobe or map, and from this alone, make out a set of instructions 
m regard to some favourite constellation, and then desire his pupi 
to trace out in the firmament, by means of it, the various stars which 
he has thus described. The "pupil will find it little better than a 
fancy sketch. The bearings and distances, and especially, the com- 
parative brightness, and relative positions, will rarely be exhibitcc 
with such accuracy that the young observer will be inspired with 
much confidence in his guide. 

I have demonstrated to mv^elf^ at least, that the most judicious iii- 
structions to put on paper for the guide of the young in this study 
are those which I have used most successfully, while in a clear eve- 
ning, without any chart but the firmament above, I have pointed 
out, v;ith my finger, to a group of listeners, the varioas stars which 
compose this and that constellation. 

In this way, the teacher will describe the sUvt, as they attually 
appear to the pupil — taking adv^antage of thos3 iVvi'jus and more 
striking features that serve to identify and to dis*\icLMsh them from 
all others. Now if these verbal instructions be committed to wri- 



ting and placed in the Hands of any other pupil, they will answr ". 
nearly the same end. This is the meth 1 which I nave pursued in 
this work. The descriptive part of it, at least, was not composed 
by the light of the sun, principally, nor of a lamp, but by the light 
of the stars themselves. Having"^ fixed upon the most conspicuous 
srar, or group of stars, in each constellation, as it passed the meri- 
dian, and with a pencil carefully noted all the identifying circum- 
stances of position, bearing, brightness, number and distance — their 
geometrical allocation, if any, and such other descriptive features 
as seemed most worthy of notice, I then returned to my room to tran- 
scribe and classify these memoranda in their proper order; repeat- 
ing the same observations at different n ours the same evening, and 
on other evenings at various periods, for a succession of years ; al- 
^ays adding such emendations as subsequent observations matured. 
To satisfy myself of the applicability of these descriptions,. I have 
given detached portions of them to different pupils, and sent them 
out to find the stars ; and I have generally had the gratification cf 
hearing them report, that " every thing was just as I had described 
It." If a pupil found any difficulty in recognizing a star, I re-tx- 
amined the description to see if it could be made better, and when 
I found it susceptible of improvement, it was made on the spot. It 
is not pretended, however, that there is not yet much room for im- 
provement; for whoever undertakes to delineate or describe every 
visible star in the heavens, assumes a task, ui the accomplishment 
of which, he ma}' well claim some indulgence. 

The maps which accompany the work, in the outlines and ar- 
rangement of the constellations, are essentially the same with those 
of Dr. Wollaston. They are projected upon the same principles 
as maps of Geography, exhibiting a faithful portraiture of the hea- 
vens for every month, and consequently for every day in the year, 
and do not require to be rectified, for that purpose, like globes. 

They are calculated, in a good measure, to supersede the neces- 
sity of celestial globes in schools, inasmuch as they present a more 
natural view of the heavenly bodies, and as nearly all the problems 
which are peculiar to the celestial globe, and a great number be- 
sides, may be solved upon them in a very simple and sati<^factory 
manner. They may be put into the hands of each individual in a 
class at the same time, but a globe cannot be. The student may 
conveniently hold them before his eye to guide his survey of the 
heavens, but a globe he cannot. There is not a conspicuous star 
in the firmament which a child of ten years may not readily find by 
their aid. Besides, the maps are always right and ready for use, 
while the globe is to be rectified and turned to a particular meri- 
dian ; and then if it be not held in that position for the time being 
it is liable to be moved by the merest accident or breath of wind. 

There is another consideration which renders an artificial globe 
of very little avail as an auxiliary for acquiring a Icnowledge of the 
stars while at school. It is this: — the pupil spends on*^ perhaps 
two weeks, in solving the problems, and admiring the figures on it, 
in which time it has been turned round and round a hundred imes ; 
it is then returned safely to its case, and some months afterw ards, 
or it may be the next evening, he directs his eve upwards to lecog- 



nize his acquaintance anion? the stars. Hp naay find hlt^H^ll able 

to recollect the names of the principal stars, and the uncoutn ibrms 
by which the constellations are pictured out ; but which oi" all tlK» 
positions he has placed the globe in, is now so present to his min* 
that he is enabled to identify it with any portion of the visible hea- 
vens 7 
H? looks in vain to see, 

" Lions and Centaurs, Gorgons, Hydras rise, 
And gods and heroes blaze along the skies." 

He finds, in short, that the bare study of the globe is one thing 
1 and that of the heavens quite another ; and he arrives at the con 
e elusion, that if he would be profiled, both must be studied and com 
1 pared together. This, since a class is usually furnished with bui 
one globe, is impracticable. In this point of view also, the map* 
J are preferable. 

I have endeavoured to teach the Geography of the heavens in 
nearly the same manner as we teach the Geo.'^raphy of the earth 
1 What that does in regard to the history, situation, extent, popula- 
tion and principal cities of the several kingdoms of the earth, ] 
I have done in regard to the constellations ; and I am persuaded, 
that a knowledge of the one may be as easily obtained, as of the 
other. The systems are similar. It is only necessary to change the 
terms in one, to render them applicable to the other. For this rea- 
son, I have }aelded to the preference of the publisher in calling this 
work " Geography of the Heavens," instead of Uranography, or 
some other name more etymologically apposite. 

That a serious conlemplaiion of those stupendous works of the 
Most High, which astronomy unfolds, is calculated above all other 
departments of human knowledge, to enlarge and invigorate the 
powers of religious contemplation, and subserve the interests of ra- 
tional piety, we have the testimony of the most illustrious charac- 
ters that have adorned our race. 

If the work which I now submit, shall have this tendency, I shall 
not have written in vain. Hitherto, the science of the stars has 
been but very superficially studied in our schools, for want of pro- 
per helps. They have continued to gaze upon the visible heavens 
without comprehending what they saw. They have cast a vacant 
eye upon the splendid pages of this vast volume, as children amuse 
.nemselves with a book which they are unable to read. They have 
caught here and there, as it were a capital letter, or a picture, but 
they have failed to distinguish those smaller characters on which 
the sense of the whole depends. Hence, say«; an eminent English 
Astronomer, " A comprehensive work on Descriptive Astro?iomy, 
detailing, in a popular manner, all the facts which have been ascer- 
tained respecting the scenery of the heavens, accompanied with a 
variety of striking delineations, accommodated to the capacity of 
youth, is a desideratum." How far this desirable end is accom- 
plished by the following work, I humbly leave to the puhln. tc 
decide. 

Hartford, Feb. 18bo. 



INDEX. 



Page 

Anilromeda 35 

Aries, the Ram, 43 

Auma, Ihe Charioteer, 63 

Argo Navis, the Ship Ar<io, 7-1 

Asterion et Chara, vel Canes Vo- 

naiici, the Greyhounds, 94 

Aquila et Autinous, the Eagle and 

Anrinous, 125 

Aquarius, the Water Bearer, 135 

Asteroids 226 

Aurora BoreaUs, the Northern 

Lights, 290 

Bootes, the Bear Driver, 95 

"lassiopeia, 38 

Cepheus, 41 

Cetus, the Whale 47 

Cohimbathe Dove 61 

Carnelopardalus, the Camelopard, 65 

Canis Minor, the Little Dog, 69 

Canis Major, the Great Dog, 71 

Cancer, the Crab, 76 

Coma Berenices, Berenice's ila'r, 89 

Corvus. the Crow, 90 

Centaurus, the Centaur, 98 

Corona Borealis, the Northern 

Crown, 103 

Cy gn iiSj the Swan 1 28 

Capricornus, the Goat 131 

Constellations — origin of, 146 

Comets 243 

Draco, the Draeon 117 

Delphinus, the Dolphin, 127 

Dick's Introduction viii 

Gf'ography, viii 

Navigation, ix 

Agriculture, x 

Chronology xi 

Propagation of Religion, xii 

Dissipates superstitious No- 
tions xiii 

Days and Nights, different lengths 

of, 278 

Eridanus, River Po 61 

Equitlus, vel Equi Sectio, the Lit- 
tle Horse, or the Horse's Head, i:i4 

Earth, 198 

Equinoxes. Precession of, 262 

Eclii)tic,— Obliquity of, 269 

Eclipses Solar and Lunar, 215 

Forces, Attractive and Projectile,. 260 

Gemini, th*^ Twins, 66 

Gravitation. Universal Law of, ... . 257 
Hydra, the Water Serpent and the 

Cup, 83 

Hercules, 112 



Page 

Herschei, £41 

Heavenly Bodies, Parallax of,.... 293 

Jupiter, 230 

Lepus, the Hare, 60 

Lynx, S5 

Leo, the Lion, 78 

Leo Minor, the Little Lion, 82 

Lupus, the Wolf 99 

Libra the Balance, 100 

Lyra, the Harp, 121 

Monoceros, the Unicorn, 71 

Mars, 222 

Mercury, 183 

Moon 208 

Moon— Harvest and Horizontal,. . . 283 
Meteoric Showers, Professor Obu- 

sted's Remarks upon, 167 

Orion, 56 

Pisces, the Fishes 36 

Perseus et Caput Medusoe, Perseus 

and Medusa's Head, 49 

Pegasus, the Flying Hoi'se 133 

Piscis Australis, vel Notius, the 

Southern Fish, 136 

Preliminary Chapter, 25 

Planets, forces by which they are 

retained in their Orbits, 256 

Problems and Tables, 295 

Refraction, 287 

Sextans, the Sextant, 82 

Serpens, the Serpent, 102 

Scorpio, the Scorpion, 109 

Sagittarius, the Archer, 124 

Serpentarius, vel Ophiuchus, the 

Serpent Bearer, 115 

Stars— variable, 137 

Double, 138 

Clusters of, 14J 

NebulEe, 142 

Number. Distance, and Eco- 
nomy of, 152 

Falling, or Shooting 160 

Solar System— General Phenome- 
na of, 169 

Sun, 173 

Saturn, 2.35 

Seasons, 278 

Taurus, the Bull, 52 

Tides, 272 

Twilight, 287 

Ursa Major, the Great Bear, 85 

Ursa Minor, the Little Bear, 105 

Virgo, the Virgin 92 

Via Lactea, the Milky Way 144 

Venus. 187 



INTRODUCTION. 



ADVANTAGES OF THE STUDY OF ASTRONOIVIY 



THOMAS DICK, LL. D. 



Astronomy is a science which has, in all ages, engaged the at- 
. tention of the poet, the philosopher, and the divine, and been the 
■ subject of their study and admiration. Kings have descended from 
their thrones to render it homage, and have sometimes enriched il 
with their labours; and humble shepherds, while watching iheir 
flocks by night, have beheld wdth rapture the blue vault of heaven, 
with its" thousand shining orbs movinsf i^^ 'iient grandeur, till the 
morning star announced the approach ol dav. — The study of this 
science must have been co-eval with the existence of man. For 
there is no rational being who, foi the first time, has lifted has eye.s 
to the nocturnal sky, and beheld the moon walking in brighrnesa 
among the planeiary orbs and the host of stars, but must have been 
struck with awe and admiration at the splendid scene, and its sub- 
lime movements, and excited to anxious inquiries into the nature, 
the motions, and the de^^tinations of those for-distant orbs. Cora- 
pared with the splendour, the amplitude, the augast motions, and 
the ideas of infinity which the celestial vault presents, the most re- 
splendent terrestrial scenes sink into inanity, and appear unworthy 
of being set in competition with the glories of the sky. 

Independently of the sublimity of its objects, and the yleasure 
arising from their contemplation, Astronomy is a study of vast 
utility^ in consequence of its connexion with terrestrial arts and 
sciences, many of which are indebted to the observations and the 
principles of this science for that degree of perfection to which thev 
nave attained. 

A stronomy has been of immense utility to the science of 
GEOGRAPHY; 

for it is chielly m consequence of celestial observations Inat th? 
true figure of the earth has been demonstrated and its densitu as- 
certained. It was from such observations, made on the mountain 
Schehallien in Scotland, that the attraction of mountains was de- 
ermined. The observations were made by taking the meridian 
distances of different fixed stars near the zenith, first on the south, 
and afterwards on the north side of the hill, when the plumb line oS 



INTRODUCTION IX 

whe Sector was found, in both cases, to be deflected from the per- 
pendicular towards the mountain; and, from calculations founded 
on thf quantit}^ of this deflection, the mean density of the earth was 
ascer ained. It was likewise by means of celestial observations 
that the length of a degree of the meridian was measured, and the 
circumference of the globe, with aD its other dimen^Aons accurately 
ascertained ; for, to ascertain the number of degrees between any 
t^'o parallels on the Earth's surface, observations must be taken, 
with proper instruments, of the sun or of the stars, at different sta- 
tions ; and the accurate measurement of the terrestrial distance be- 
tween any two stations or parallels, partly depends on astronomical 
observations combined with the principles and operations of Trigo- 
nometry. So that without the aids of this science, the figure and 
densit}% the circumference and diameter of our terrestrial habita- 
tion, and the relative position of places on its surface, could never 
have been ascertained. 
Astronomy is likewise of great utility to the art of 

NAVIGATION; 

without a certain knowledge of which the marmer could nevei 
have traced his course through pathless oceans to remote regions— 
the globe would never have been circumnavigated, nor an inter- 
course opened between the inhabitants of distant lands. It is of 
essential importance to the navigator, not only to know the situation 
of the port to which he is bound, but also to ascertain with pre- 
cision, on what particular portion of the terraqueous globe he is al 
any time placed — what course he is pursuing — how far he has tra- 
velled from the port at which he embarked — what dangerous rocks 
or shoals lie near the line of his course — and in what direction he 
must steer, in order to arrive, by the speediest and the safest course, 
to his destined haven. It is only, or chiefly, by astronomical obser- 
vations that such particulars can be deie'rmined. By accurately 
observing the distance between the moon and certain stars, at a 
particular time, he can calculate his distance East or West from a 
given meridian; and, by taking the meridian altitude of the sun or 
of a star, he can learn his distance from the Equator or from the 
poles of the world. In such observations, a knowledge of the eon- 
b.tellations, of the polestar, and of the general positions of all the 
stars of the first and second magnitude, is of particular importance ; 
and, therefore, a navigator who is unacquainted with the sciencb 
of the heavens, ought never to be appomted to conduct a ship through 
me Indian, the Atlantic, or the Pacific oceans, or through any por- 
tions of the sea which is not within sight of land. By the observa- 
tions founded on astronomical science, which have been made in 
different regions, by mariners and travellers of various descriptions, 
the latitudes and longitudes of the principal places on the globe, 
and their various bearings and relations have been determined, so 
that we can now take a view of the world we inhabit in all its mul- 
tifarious aspects, and direct our course to any quarter of it, either 
for business, for pleasure, or for the promotion of philanthropic ob- 
jects. Thur, Astronomy has likewise become of immense utili, v 
lo Trade and Commerce, in opening up new empmuras k"- uu/ 



X .NTRODL'CTION 

manalacmre- , in augmenting and multipl3'in ? the sources of .vealth, 
m promoting an intercouriie between the most distant nation.s, and 
enabling us to procure, for our accommodation or luxury, the ipuh- 
ductions of every climate. If science has now explored almost 
every region; if Politics and Philosophy have opened a coinmuui- 
cation between the remotest inhabitants of the globe ; if allianres 
have been formed between the most distant tribes of mankin I ; if 
Traffic has explored the multifarious pioductions of the earth and 
seas, and transported them from one country to another, anc'., if 
heathen lands and barbarous tribes have been " visited with the 
Day-spring from on high, and the knowledge of salvation," — it is 
owing to the aids derived from the science of the stars, without 
which the continents, the islands, and the different a'pects of our 
globe would never have been explored by those who were sepaj'a- 
led from them by intervening oceans. 
This science has been no less useful to 

AGRICULTURE, 

and to the cultivators of the earth. The successful cultivation of the 
tt soil depends on a knowledge of the course of the sun, the exact length 
s of the seasons, and the periods of the year most proper for the opera- 
t tions of tillage and sowing. TYie ancients were directed in these 
\ operations, in the first instance, by observing the courses of the 
f moon, and that twelve revolutions of this luminary corresponded 
% nearly with one apparent revolution of the sun. But finding rhe 
r coincidence not exact, and that the time of the seasons was cliang- 
5 ing — in order to know the precise bounds of the sun's annual course, 
t and the number of days corresponding to his apparent yearly revo- 
t lution, they were obliged to examine with care what stars were 
i successively obscured in the evening by the sun, or overpowered 
s by the splendour of his light, and what stars were beginning to 
1 emerge from his rays, and to re-appear before the dawn of the 
t morning. By certain ingenious methods, and numerous and ai- 
1 tentive observations, they traced out the principal stars that lay in 
1 the line of the sun's apparent course, gave them certain names by 
< which they might be afterwards distinguished, and then divided 
. the circle of the heavens in which the sun appears to more, first 
into quadrants, and afterwards into 12 equal parts, now called the 
; signs of the Zodiac, which they distinguished by names correspond- 
ing to certain objects and operations connected with the different 
seasons of the year. Such were the means requisite lo be used for 
ascertaining the length of the year, and the commencement of the 
different seasons, and for directing the labours of the husbandman ; 
— and, were the knowledge of these things to be obliterated by any 
extensive moral or physical convulsion, mankind would again be 
under the necessity of having recourse to astronomical observations 
lor determining the limits of the solar year, and the course of the 
seasons Although we find no difficulty, in the present day, and 
require no anxious observ^aticns, in determining the seasons, yet^ 
before astron3mical observations were made with some degree oi 
a curacy, the ancient Greeks had to watch the rising of Arcturns 
the Pleiades and Orion, to mark their seasons, and to determine the 



INTRODUCTION. XI 

proper time for their agricultural labours. The xumg of the star 
Sinus along with the sim, announced to the Egyptians the period 
when they might exnect the overflowing of the Nile, and, conse- 
quently, the time when the.y were to sow their grain, cut their ca- 
Dnls and reservoirs, and prepare the way for their expected harvest. 

The science of 

CHRONOLOGY, 
likewise depends on celestial observations. The knowledge of an 
exact measure of time is of considerable importance in arranging 
and conducting the affairs of life, without which, society in its 
movements would soon run into confusion. For example, if we 
could not ascertain, within an hour or two, when an assembly 
or any concourse of human beings was to meet for an important 
purpose, all such purposes would soon be frustrated, and human 
improvement prevented. Our ideas of tirne or succession in du- 
ration, are derived from motion; and in order to its being divi- 
ded into equal parts, the motions on which we fix as standards of 
ti)nt must be constant and wiifonn, or at least, that any slight de- 
viation from uniformity shall be capable of being ascertained. 
But we have no uniform motion on earth by which the lapse of 
duration can be accurately measured. Neither the flight of birds, 
the motion of the clouds, the gentle breeze, the impetuous whirl- 
wind, the smooth-flowing river, the roaring cataract, the falling 
rain, nor even the flux and reflux of the ocean, regular as they 
generally are, could afford any certain standard for the measure 
of time. It is, therefore, to the motion of the celestial orbs alone 
that we can look for a standard of duration that is certain and inva- 
riable, and not liable to the changes that take place in all terrestrial 
movements. Those magnificent globes which roll around us m 
the canopy of the sky — whether their motions be considered as 
real or only apparent, move with an order and regularity which is 
not found in any physical agents connected with our globe ; and 
when from this quarter we have derived any one invariable mea- 
sure of time, we can subdivide it into the minutest portions, to 
subserve all the purposes of civil life, and the improvements of 
science. Without the aids of astronomy, therefore, we should have 
had no accurate ideas of the lapse of time, and should have been 
obliged, like the rude savage of the desert, to compute our time by 
the falls of snow, the succession of rainy seasons, the meUing of the 
ice, or the progress and decay of vegetation. 

Celestial observations, in consequence of having ascertained a 
regular measure of time, have enabled us to fix chronological dates, 
and to determine the principal epochs of History. Many of those 
epochs were coincident with remarkable eclipses of the sun or 
moon, which the ancients regarded as prognostics of the loss cf 
battles^ the death of monarchs, and the fall of empires; and which 
are recorded in connexion with such events, where no dates are 
liientioned. The astronomer, therefore, knowing the invariable 
movements of the heavenly orbs, and calculating backwards through 
the past periods of time,, can ascertain what remarkable eclipses 
must have been visible at any particular time and place, and con- 
sequently, can determine the precise date of contemporary events. 



j.^^ INTRODUCTION. 

Caivjsius, for example, founds his Chronology on 144 eclipicj' o. 
ihe sun. and 127 of the moon, which he had calculated for tlie pur 
po.se of determining epochas and settling dates. The grand con- 
junction of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, which occurs once in 
800 years, in the same point of the zodiac, and which has happened 
only eight times since the Mosaic Creation, furnishes Chronology 
wiTh incontestable proofs of the date of events, when such phenomena 
happen to be recorded. On such data, Sir Isaac Newton deter- 
mined the period when Thales the philosopher flourished, pauicu- 
larly from the famous eclipse which he predicted, and which hap- 
pened just as the two armies mider Algattcs, king of Lydia, and 
Cyaxares the Mede were engaged ; and which has been calculated 
to have happened in the 4th year of the 43d Olympiad, or in the 
year before Christ 603. On similar grounds Dr. Halley, a cele- 
brated astronomer of the last century, determined the very day and 
hour of the landing of Julius Cesar in Britam, merely from the 
circumstances stated in the " Commentaries" of that illustrious 
general. 
Astronomy has likewise lent its aid to the 

PROPAGATION OF RELIGION, 

and the conversion of tne heathen world. For, without the light 
derived from this celestial science, oceans would never have been 
traversed, nor the continents and islands explored where benighted 
nations reside, and, consequently, no messengers of Peace could 
have been despatched to teach them " the knowledge of salvation, and 
to guide their steps in the way of peace." But, with the direction 
afforded by the heavenly orbs and the magnetic needle, thousands 
of Christian missionaries, along with millions of bibles, may now 
be transported to the most distant contments and islands of the ocean, 
to establish among them the " Law and Testimony" of the Most 
High — to illume the darkness and counteract the moral aboi^ina- 
tions and idolatries of the Pagan world. If the predictions o, an- 
cient prophets are to be fulfilled; if the glory of Jehovah is to cover 
the earth ; if " the isle? afar off," that have not yet heard of the fame 
01 the Redeemer, nor seen his glory, are to be visired with the 
" Day-spring from on high," and enrolled anion? the citizens of 
Zion ; if the world is to be regenerated, and Righteousness and 
Praise to spring forth before all nations — those grand events will 
be accomplished partly through the influence and direction of those 
celestial luminaries which are placed in the firmament to be for 
signs, and for sea^^ons, and for days and years. The liarht reflected 
from ;he material heavens will lend its aid in illuminating the minds 
of the benighted tribes of mankind, till they be prepared for being 
rransported into those celestial mansions wheie knowledge shall 
be perfected, and Sovereign power triumphant. It will be likewise 
in-m aid derived from the heavenly orbs that tht desolate wastes 
of the globe in every region will be cultivated and replenished with 
inhabitants. For the Almighty " created not the earth in vain, bu 
formed it to be inhabited ;" and his purpose in this respect mu*^t ul 
limatoly be accomplished ; and the process of perpling and cultiva- 
tion is now going forward ?n New Holland, Van Diemen's Lanu, 



INTRODDUTIOIV. 



Xlli 



Africa, ihe TVescern States of America, and other region^, ^nere 
sterilit}'- and desolation have prevailed since the universal Deluge. 
Bat how could colonies of men be transportc-^ from civilized na- 
tions to those distant regions unless by the guidance of celestial lu- 
mmaries, and by the aid of those arts which are founded on the ob- 
servations of astronomy 1 So that this science exerts an extensive 
and beneficial influence over the most important affairs of mankind. 
Id short, asti'onomy, by unfolding to us the causes of certain ce- 
'estial phenomena, has tended to 
DISSIPATE SUPERSTITIOUS NOTIONS 

and vain alarms. In former ages the approach of a blazing comet, 
on: a total eclipse of the sun or moon, were regarded with universal 
consternation as prognostics of impending calamities, ajid as har- 
bingers of Divine vengeance. And even in the present day, such 
notions prevail among most of those nations and tribes that are un- 
acquainted with astronomical science. During the darkness occa- 
sioned by a solar eclipse, the lower orders of Turkey have been 
seen assembling in clusters m the streets, gazing wildly at the sun, 
running about in wild distraction, and firing volleys of muskets at 
the sun to frighten away the monster by which they supposed it 
was about to be devoured. The Moorish song of death, or tlie 
howl they make for the dead, has been heard, on such occasior s, 
resounding from the mountains and the vales, while the women 
brought into the streets ail the brass pans, and vessels, and inm 
utensils they could collect, and striking them with all their force, 
and uttering dreadful screaff^, occasioned a horrid noise that wis 
h'jar'^ for miles around. But astronomy has put to flight such ter- 
rific phantoms and groundless alarms, bv unfcldins: to us the tri e 
causes of ail sucn phenomena, and sf-owins: us ihat rhey happen io 
exact confonnity with those mvariable laws by which the Almignty 
conducts the machine of the universe — that eclipses are merely tl,e 
eiFects of the shadow of one opaque globe falling upon another, ard 
Ihat comets are bodies which move in regular, but long elliptical 
orbits — which appear and disappear in stated periods of time, and are 
destined to subserve some grand and beneficent designs in the sys- 
tem to which they belong. So that we may now contemplate all 
such celestial phenomena, not only with composure and tranquillity, 
but with exultation and delight. In short, astronomy has under- 
mined the absurd and fallacious notions by which the professors of 
Judicial Astrology have attempted to impose on the credulity of 
mankind, under pretence of disclosing the designs of I^ate, and 
the events of futurity. It shows us, that the stars are placed at iin- 
measurable distances from our terrestrial sphere — that they can 
have no influence upon the earth, but what arises from the law of 
universal gravitation — that the great end for which they were crea- 
ted was to difiuse light, and to perform other important services in 
regions infinitely distinct fr(jm the sphere we occupy — that the pla- 
nets are bodies of difierent sizes, and somewhat similar to the globt 
on which we live — that all their aspects and conjunctions a"e the 
result of physical laws which are regular and immutable — and ihaJ 
Qo data can be ascertained on which it can be proved that the; 



j[v INTRODUCTION. 

exert a moral influence on the temperaments and destinies of luen 
except in so far as they tend to raise our affections to their Al- 
mighty Author, and excite us to confide m his care, and to contem- 
plate the effects of his wisdom and omnipotence. The heave\is 
are set before us, not as the " Book of Fate," in which we may pry 
into the secrets of our future destiny, which would only serve to 
destroy activity, and increase the pressure of our present afflictions 
— bat as the " Book of God," in which we may read his wondrous 
works, contemplate the glory of his eternal empire, and be excited 
to extend our views to those expansive scenes of endless felicity 
which aAvait the faithful in the realms above. 

Independently of the considerations above stated, the study of as- 
tronomy is attended with many advantages in a moral, intellectual, 
and religious point of view. 

I. This department of science unfolds to us the most striking dis- 
pfai/s of the perfections of the Deity, — particularly the grandeur of 
his Omnipotence. His Wisdom is conspicuously displayed in the 
general arrangement of the heavenly orbs, particularly \iv reference 
to the globes which compose the solar system — in placing near the 
centre of this system that immense luminary the Sun, from whence 
light and heat might be distributed, in due proportion, to all the 
worlds tk roll around it — in nicely proportionating the motions 
and distances of all the planets primary and secondary — in uniting 
*hem in one har^ jnious system, by one grand universal law which 
prevents then .lom flying oflfin wild confusion through the infini- 
ty of space — m t].e constancy and regularity of their motions, no 
one intp-fering with another, or deviating from the course pre- 
scribed — m the exactness with which they run their destmed 
rounds, finishing their circuits with so much'accuracy as not to de- 
viate from their periods of revolution, the hundredth part of a mi- 
nute in a thousand years — in the spherical figures given to all those 
mighty orbs, and the diurnal motions impressed upon them, by 
which a due proportion of light and heat is diffused over exQvy part 
of their surface. The Benevolence of the Deity shines no less con- 
spicuous in those upper regions, in ordering all the movements and 
arrangements of the celestial globes so as to act in subserviency to 
the comfort and happiness of sentient and intelligent beings. For, 
the wisdom of God is never employed in devising means without 
an end; and the grand end of all his arrangements, in so far as our 
views extend, is the communication of happiness ; and it would be 
inconsistent with the wisdom and other perfections of God not to 
admit, that the same end is kept in view in every part of his doming 
ioJis, however far removed from the sphere of our contemplation. 
The heavens, therefore, must be considered as presenting a boimd- 
less scene of Di"ine benevolence. For they unfold to view a count- 
Jess number of magnificent globes, calculated to be the habitations 
of various orders of beings, and which are, doubtless, destined to be 
the abodes of intellectuallife. For the character of the Deity would 
be impeached, and his wisdom virtually denied, were we to sup- 
pose him to arrange and establish a magnificent series of meavs 
without an end corresponding, in utility and dignity, to the gran- 
\*eur of the contrivance. When, therefore, we consider the iiinu- 



INTRODUCTION. XT 

merable worlds which must exist throughout the immensity of 
soace, the countless myriads of "intelligences that people them, the 
various ranks and orders of intellect that may exisl among ihem, 
the innumerable diversified arrangements -which are nipde for pro- 
moting their enjoyment, and the peculiar displays of Divine benig- 
nity enjoyed in ever}' world — we are presented with a > me of Di- 
vine goodness and beneficence wliich overpowers ouv ci ^ ceptions, 
and throws completely into the shade all that we per^e-v or enjoy 
within the confines of this sublunary world. And, ;dti igh the 
minute displays of Divine benevolence in distant world are not 
yet particularly unfolded to our vieAV, yet tliis circumstj nee does 
not prove that no such displays exist , —and as we are d ^stined to 
an immortal ]ife, in another region of creation, we shall, c oubtless, 
be favoured with a more expan::^ive view of the effects o ' Divine 
benignity in that eternal scene which lies before us. 

But this science exhibits a more striking display than any other 
of the Omnipotent energies of the Eternal Mind. It presents before 
us objects of overpowering magnitude and splendour — planetary- 
globes a thousand times larger than the earth — magnificent rings 
which would nearly reach from the earth to the moon, and would 
enclose within their vast circumference 500 worlds as large as 
ours — suns a million times larger than this earthly ball, diflusing 
their light over distant worlds — .ind these suns scattered in every 
lirection through the immensity of space, at immeasurable distances 
from each other, and in multitudes of groups which no man can 
numbe \ presenting to the eye and the imagination a perspective ol 
starry systems, boundless as immensity. — ^It presents to our view 
motions so astonishing as to overpower and almost terrify the ima- 
gination — bodies a thousand times larger than the earth flying with 
a velocity of 29,000 miles an hour, performing circuits more than 
three thousand millions of miles in circumference, and canying 
along with them a retinue of revolving worlds in their swift career; 
nay, motions, at the rate of 880,000 miles an hour, have been per- 
ceived among the celestial orbs, which as far surpass the motions 
we behold around us in this lower world, as the heavens in height 
surpass the earth. Such motions are perceived not only in the so- 
lar system, but in the most distant regions of the universe, among 
double stars — they are regular and uninterrupted — they have been 
going forward for thousands, perhaps for millions of years — there 
is perhaps no body in the universe but is running its round with 
similar velocity ; and it is not unlikely that the whole machine ol 
universal nature is in perpetual motion amidst the spaces of immen- 
sity, and will continue thus to move throughout all the periods ol 
endless duration. Such objects and such motions evidently display 
the omnipotence of the Creator beyond every other scene which 
creation presents ; and, when seriously contemplated, cannot but 
inspire us with the most lofty and impressive conceptions of the 
" eternal power" and majesty of Him who sits on the throne of the 
oniverse, and by whom all its mighty movements are conducted. 
They demonstrate, that his agency is universal and uncontroUabU 
—that he is able to accomplish all his designs, however incompre- 
hensible to mortals — that no created being can frustrate his pur 



-CVl rNTRODlTCTION. 

poses, and tha* he is worthy of our highest afrpct'^^n, and our inces- 
«;ant adoration. 

2. Astronon y disp.ays before us tke extent ana grandeur of Uod'i 
universal ert'.]".-'c. The globe we inhabit, with all its appendages, '' 
torms a port of of the Divine empire, and, when minutely investi- 
gated, exhihj a striking display of its Creator's power, benignity, 
and intelligciM e. But it forms only one small province of his uni- 
versal dom n^ons — an almost undistinguishable speck in the greal 
map o. thf up.iv'erse: and if we confine our views solely to the lim- 
its of '.his e: /estrial ball, and the events which have taken place on 
its surfac we must form a very mean and circumscribed idea oi 
the exleni fthe Creator's kingdom and the range of his moral go- 
vcrnmenL But the discoveries of astronomy have extended our 
views to ther provinces of the empire of Omnipotence, far more 
spacious and magnificent. They demonstrate, that this Qarth, with 
all its vast oceans and mighty continents, and numerous population, 
ranks among the smaller provinces of this empire — that the globes 
composing the system to which it belongs, (without including the 
sun,) contain an extent bf territory more than two thousand times 
larger than our world — that the sun himself is more than 500 times 
larger than the whole, and that, although they were all at this mo- 
ment buried in oblivion, they would scarcely be missed by an eye 
that could survey the whole range of creation. — They demonstrate, 
that ten thousands of suns, and ten thousand limes ten thousands oi 
revolving worlds are di.'-;persed throughout every region of bound- 
less space, di-^playing the creating and supporting energies of Om- 
nipotence; and consequently, are all under the care and superir- 
lendence of Him " who doth according to his will in the armies bf 
heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth." Such an empire, 
and such only, appears corresponding to the perfections of Him 
who has existed from eternity past, whose power is irresistible, 
whose goodness is unbounded, and whose presence fills the immen- 
sity of space; and it leads us to entertain the most exalted senti- 
ments of admiration at the infinite intelligence implied in the super- 
intcndence of such vast dominions, and at the boundless beneficenct 
displayed among the counties.^ myriads of sensitive and intellectual 
beings which must people his wide domains. 

3. The objects which this science discloses, aff'ord subjects oj su^ 
lime contemplation, and tend to elevate the soul above vicious passions 
and grovelling pursuits. In the hours of retirement and solitude 
what can be more delightful, than to wing our way in imagination 
amidst the splendid objects which the firmament display.s — to take 
our flight along with the planets in their wide career — to behold 
them running their ample rounds with velocities fcrty times swifter 
than a cannon ball — to ."^urvey the assemblages of their moons, re- 
volving around them in their respective orders, and carried at the 
same time, along with their primaries, through the depths of space 
—to contemplate the magnificent arches which adorn the firmament 
cf Saturn, whirling round that planet at the rate of a thousand miles 
in a minute, and displaying their radiance and majestic movements 
^o an admiring population — to add scene to scene, and magnitude 
to nagnitude, till the mind acquire an ample conception of sucn 



rNTRODUCTION. XVI. 

ftuffijst objects — to dive into the depths of infinite space till we De 
surrounded with myriads of suns and systems of worlds, extending 
oeyond the range of mortal comprehension, and all running theii 
appointed rounds, and accomplishmg the designs of beneficence in 
obedience to the mandate of their Almighty Author 1 Such objects 
afford matter for rational conversation, and for the most elevated 
contemplation. In this ample field the most luxuriant maaginatioa 
may range at large, representing scenes and objects hi endless va 
riety and extent ; and, after its boldest excursions, it can scarcely 
go beyond the reality of the magnificent objects which exist withii 
the range of creating power and intelhgence. 

The frequent contemplation of such objects tends to enlarge the 
capacity of the mind, to ennoble the human faculties, and raise the 
soul above grovellmg affections and vicious pursuits. For the dis- 
positions of mankind and their active pursuits generally correspond 
to the train of thought in which they most frequently indulge. If 
these thoughts run among puerile and vicious objects, such will be 
the general character of their affections and conduct. If their trait 
of thinking take a more elevated range, the train of their actions, and 
the passions l;hey display, will, in some measm-e, be correspondent 

Can we suppose, that a man whose mind is daily conversant with, 
the noble r.nd expansive objects to which I have adverted, would 
dave his soul absorbed in the pursuits of ambition, tyranny, oppres- 
sion, war and devastation 1 

"Would lie rash l:ke a madman tlu^ough burning cities, and man- 
i.ei carcasses of the slain, in order to trample under foot the rights 
of mankind, and enjoy a proud pre-eminence over his fellows — and 
find pleasure in such accursed pursuits 1 

Would he fawn on statesmen and princes, and violate every 
moral principle, in order to obtain a pension, or a post of opulence or 
honour ] Would he drag his fellow-men to the stake, because they 
worshipped God according to the dictates of their consciences, and 
behold with pleasure their bodies roasting in the flames I 

Would he drive men. women, and children from their homes, 
loaded with chains and fetters, to pine in miser)'' and to perish in a 
distant land, merelv because they asserted the rights to which they 
were entitled as citizens and as rational beings ? 

Or, would he degrade himself below the level of the brutes by a 
daily ii:dulgence in rioting and drunkenness, till his faculties were 
benumbed, and liis body found wallowing in the mire 1 

It is scarcely possible to suppose that such passions and conduct 
would be displayed by the man who is habitually engaged in celes- 
tial contemplations, and whose mind is familiar with the august ob- 
jects which the firmament displays. " If men were taught to act 
in view of ail the bright worlds which are looking down upon 
them, they could not be guilty of those abominable cruelties'' 
which some scenes so mournfully display. We should then expet-t, 
that the hon rod of oppression would be broken in pieces — that \var 
would cease its honors and devastations — that liberty would be 
2* 



KVin INTRODUCTION. 

prcciaimed to the captives — that " righteousness would run tlo^wTi 
bur streets as a river," and a spirit congenial to that of the inhabil- 
anis of heaven would be displayed by the rulers of nations, and by 
all the families of the earth. For all the scenes which the firma- 
ment exhibits have a tendency to inspire tranquillity — to produce a 
love 01 harmony and order, to stain the pride of human grandeur-- 
to display the riches of Divitie be?icjicence — to excite admiration 
and reverence — and to raise the soul to God as the Supreme Director 
jf univernal nature, and the source and centre of all true enjoy- 
meni ; — and such sentiments and affections are directly opposed to 
ths degrading pursuits and passions which have contaminated the 
society of our world, and entailed misery on our species. 

I might have added, on this head, that the study of this subject 
has a peculiar tendency to sharpen and invigorate the mental fac 
uliies. It requires a considerable share of attention and of inteU 
\ectual acumen to enter into all the particulars connected with the 
principles and facts of astronomical science. The elliptical foim 
of the planetary orbits, and the anomalies thence arising, the muta- 
lion of the eaith's axis, the causes of the seasons, the difficulty of 
reconciling the apparent motions of the planets with their real mo- 
tions in circular or elliptical orbits, the effects produced by centri- 
fugal and centripetal forces, the precession of the equinoxes, the al>- 
erration of light, the method of determining the distances and mag- 
nitudes of the celestial bodies, mean and apparent time, the irregu- 
larity of the moon's motion, the difficulty of forming adequate ideas 
of the immense spaces in which the huavenly bodies move, ani-*. 
their enormous size, and various other particulars, are apt, at firs' 
view, to startle and embarrass the mind, as if they were beyond the 
reach of its comprehension. But, when this science is imparted to 
the young under the guidance of enlightened instructors — when 
they are shown not merely pictures, globes and orreries, but direct- 
ed to observe with their own eyes, and with the assistance of teles- 
copes, all the interesting phenomena of the heavens, and the mo- 
tions which appear, whether real or apparent — when they are shown 
the spots of the sun, the moons and belts of Jupiter, the phases ot 
Venus, the rings of Saturn, and the mountains and vales which 
diversify the surface of the moon — such objects tend to awaken the 
attention, to expand the faculties, to produce a taste for rational in- 
vestigation, and to excite them to more eager and diligent inquiries 
into the subject. The objects appear so grand and novel, and strike 
the senses with so much force and j)leasure, that the mind is irre- 
sistibly led to exert a.l its energies in those investigations and ob- 
servations by which it may be enabled to grasp all the principle? 
and facts of the science. And every difficulty wnich is surmounted 
adds a new stimulus to the exertions of the intellect, urges it for- 
ward with delight in the path of improvement, and thus invigorates 
the mental powers, and prepares them for engaging with spirit and 
alacrity in every other investigation. 

4. The study of astronomy has a tendency to moderate the pride oj 
man, and to promote humility. Pride is one of the distinguishing 
characteristics of puny man," and has been one of the chief causes 
of all the c<mtentions, wars, deuasiations, oppressions, systems of 



INTRODUCTION. XO 

slavery, despotisms, and ambitious projects which have desolated 
and demoralized our sinful world. Yet there is no disposition more 
incongruous to the character and circumstances of man. Perhaps 
there are no rational beings throughout the universe among v\ hom 
pride would appear more unseemly or incompatible than in man ; 
considering the abject situation in which he is placed. He is ex- 
posed to innumerable degradations and calamities, to the rage oi 
storms and tempests, the devastations of earthquakes and volcanoes, 
Uie fury of whirlwinds, and the tempestuous billows of the ocean, 
the ravages of the sword, pestilence, famine, and numerous dis 
eases, and, at length, he must sink into the grave, and his body be- 
come the companion of worms. The most dignified and haughty 
of the sons of men are liable to such degradations, and are frequent- 
ly dependent on the meanest fellow creatures whom they despise, 
for the greater part of their accommodations and comforts. Yet, 
in such circumstances, man, that puny worm of- the dust, whose 
knc 'vledge is so limited, whose follies are so numerous and glaring 
— has the effrontery to strut in all the haughtiness of pride ^ and to 
glory in his shame. When scriptural arguments and motives pro- 
duce little effect, I know no considerations which have a more pow- 
erful tendency to counteract this deplorable propensity of human 
beings than those which are borrowed from the objects connected 
n-ith astronomy. They show us what an insignificant being — what 
a mere atom, indeed, man appears amidst the immensity of crea- 
tion. What is the whole of this globe, compared with thesolar sys- 
tem, which contains a mass of matter ten hundred thousand times 
greater 1 What is it in comparison of the hund red millions of suns 
and worlds which the telescope has descried throughout the starry 
legions, or of that infinity of worlds which doubtless lie beyond the 
range of human vision in the unexplored regions of immensit)^'? 
What, then, is a kingdom, or a province, or a baronial territory, of 
which we are as proud as if we were the lords of the universe, and 
for which we engage in so much devastation and carnage ! What 
are they when set in competition with the glories of the sky ! Could 
we take our station on the lofty pinnacles of heaven, and Took down 
on this scarcely distinguishable speck of earth, we should be readv 
to exclaim with Seneca, " Is it to this little spot that the great de- 
signs and vast desires of men are confined ? Is it for this there is 
so much disturbance of nations, so much carnage, and so many ru- 
inous wars '? O folly of deceived men, to imagine great kingdoms 
in the compass of an atom, to raise armies to divide a point af earth 
with the sword!" It is unworthy of the dignity of an immortal 
mind to have its affections absorbed in the vanishing splendours of 
earthly grandeur, and to feel proud of the paltry possessions and 
distinctions of this sublunar)'- scene. To foster a spirit of pride and 
vainglory in the presence of Him who " sitteth on the circle of the 
heavens," and m the view of the overwhelming grandeur and im 
mensity of his works, is a species of presumption and arrogance of 
which every rational mind ought to feel ashamed. And, therefore, 
U'e have reason to believe, that those multitudes of fools, " dressed 
.n a little brief authority," who walk in all the loftiness of pride 
iJ -^e not vet considered thp rank rhev h( Id in the scale of univer.^a' 



XX INTRODUCTION. 

being; — and that a senous contemplation of the immensit) ot crea- 
tion would have a tendency to convince us of our ignorance anJ 
nothingness, and to humble us in the dust, in the presence of the 
Former and Preserver of all worlds. We have reason to believe 
that the most exalted beings in the universe — those who are fur- 
nished with the most capacious powers, and who have arrived al 
the greatest perfection in knowledge — are distinguished by a pro- 
ortional share of humiliiy ; for, in proportion as they advance in 
their surveys of the tmiversal kingdom of Jehovah, the more wiL 
vhey feel their comparative ignorance, and be convmced of their 
limited faculties, and of the infinity of objects and operations which 
lie beyond their ken. At the same time they will feel, that all the 
faculties they possess were derived from Him who is the original 
fountain of existence, and are continually dependent for their exer- 
cise on his sustaining energy. Hence we find, that tljie angelic 
tribes are eminently distinguished for the exercise of this heavenly 
virtue. They " cover their faces with their wings" in the prese ice 
of their Sovereign, and fly, with cheerfulness, at his command, to 
our degraded world, " to minister to the heirs of salvation." It is 
only in those worlds where ignorance and depravity prevail (if there 
be any such besides our own) that such a principle as pride is knowTi 
or cherished in the breast of a dependent creature — and therefore 
'3very one in whom it predominates, however high his station or 
worldly accomplishments, or however abject his condition may be, 
must be considered as either ignorant or depraved, or more prop- 
erly, as having both those evils existing in his constitution, the one 
being the natural and necessary result of the other. 

5. The studies connected with astronomy tend to prepare the soul 
for the eviployments of the future wnrid. In that world, tlie glorv ol 
the Divine perfections, as manifested throughout the illimitable 
tracts of creation, is one of the objects which unceasingly employ the 
contemplation of the blessed. For they are represented in their ado- 
rations as celebrating the attributes of the Deity displayed in his 
operations : " Great and marvellous are thy works. Lord God Al- 
mighty ! thou art worthy to receive glory and honour and power, 
for thou hast created all things, and for thy pleasure they are and 
were created." Before we can enter that world and mingle with 
its inhabitants, we must acquire a relish for their employments, and 
some acquaintance with the objects which form the subject of their 
sublime investigations ; otherwise, we could fee{ no enjoyment in 
.he society of heavenly intelligences, and the exercises in which 
they engage. The investigations connected with astronomy, and 
the frequent contemplation of its objects, have a tendency to pre- 
pare us for such celestial employments, as they awaken attention (a 
such subjects, as they invigorate the faculties, and enlarge the ca- 
pacity of the intellect, as they suggest sublime inquiries, and desires 
for further information which may afterwards be gratified ; as they 
form the groundwork of the pro£:ress we may afterwards make in 
that state in our surveys of the Divine operations, and as they ha- 
bituate the mind to take large and comprehensiA'e views of the em- 
pire and moral government of the Almighty. T'hose who have 
•n.'ide progress in such studies, under the influence of holy di;?posi 



INTRODUCTIOIS XXI 

tions. t'>ay be considered as fitted to enter heaven "with peruliar ad- 
vantages,"^ as they will then be introduced to emploAinents and inves- 
tigations to which they were formerly accustomed, and for which 
they were prepared — in consequence of which they may be prepared 
for filling stations of superior eminence in that world, and for di- 
recting the views and investigations of their brethren who enjoyed 
few opportunities of mstruction and improvement in the present 
state. For we are informed, in the sacred records, that " they who 
are wise," or as the words should be rendered, "they who excel in 
wisdom shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that 
turn many to righteousness, as the stars for ever and ever," 

6. The researches of astronomy demou'^trate, that it, is in the 
povjer of the Creator to open to his intelligent offspring endless sour- 
ces of felicity. In looking forward to the scene of our future desti- 
nation, we behold a series of ages rising in succession without any 
prospect of a termination ; and, at first view, it might admit of a 
doubt, whether the universe presents a scene so diversified and 
boundless, that intelligent beings, during an endless duration, could 
expect that new scenes of glory and felicity might be continually 
opening to their view, or, whether the same series of perceptions 
and enjoyments might not be reiterated so as to produce satiety and 
indifference. "Without attempting positively to decide on the par- 
ticular scenes or sources of happiness that may be opened in the 
eternal world, it may be admitted, that the Deity has it in his povjer 
to gratify his rational creatures, during every period of duration, 
with new objects and new sources of enjoyment; and, that it is the 
science of astronomy alone which has presented us with a demon- 
stration, and a full illustration of this important truth. For, it has 
displayed before us a universe boundless in its extent, diversified as 
to its objects, and infinite as to their number and variety. Even 
within the limits of human vision the number of worlds which exist 
cannot be reckoned less than three thousand millions ; and those 
which are nearest to us, and subject to our particular examination, 
present varieties of different kinds, both as to magnitude, motion, 
splendour, colour and diversity of surface — e\-idently indicating, 
that every world has its peculiar scenes of beaut}' and grandeur. 
But, as no one will be so presumptuous as to assert, that the bound- 
aries of the universe terminate at the limits of human vision, there 
may be an assemblage of creation beyond all that is visible to us, 
which as far exceeds the visible system as tne vast ocean exceeds 
m magnitude a single drop of water ; and this view is nothing more 
than compatible with the idea of a Being whose creating energiey 
are infinite, and whose presence fills immensity. Here, then, we 
have presented to our contemplation a boundless scene, correspond- 
ing in variety, and extent of space, to the ages of an endless dura 
tion ; so that we can conceive an immortal mind expatiating amidsi 
objects of benignity, sublimity and grandeur, ever varied and evei 
new, throughout an eternal round of existence, without ever arr' 
ving at a point, where it might be said, " Hitherto shalt tlpu f^onib 
but no farther." And we have reason to conclude thai such will 
Oe the privilege and eniXninent of all holy beings. For we are in- 
formed on the authority of inspiration, that " in God's preseiut 



XXU IWTRODUCTIO.N. 

there is fulness of joy, and at his right hand are pvcasurei for ere* 
more." 

7, The science of astronomy is a study which Avill be prosecuted 
without intermission in the eternal world. This may be inferreil 
from what has been already stated. For, it is chiefly among the 
numerous worlds dispersed throughout the universe that God is 
seen, his perfections manifested, and the plans of his moral govern- 
ment displayed before the eyes of unnumbeied inlelligences. The 
heavens constitute by far the grandest and most extensive portion 
of the empire of Omnipotence ; and if it shall be one part of the 
happiness of immortal ^pirits to behold and investigate the beauty, 
grandeur and beneiictnce displayed throughout this empire, we 
may rest assured, that they will be perpetually employed in such 
exercises ; since the objects of their investigation are boundless as 
immensit)^ ; — or, in other words, astronomy, among other branches 
of celestial science, will be their unceasing study and pursuit. A? 
it has for its object, to investigate the motions, relations, phenomena, 
scenery, and the ultimate destination of the great bodies of the uni- 
verse, the subject can never be exhausted. Whatever may be said 
in regard to the absolute perfection of other sciences, gistronomy can 
never be said, at any future period of duration, to have arrived at 
perfection, in so far as it is a subject of study to finite minds ; and, at 
this moment, even in the view of the Infinite Mind that created t)ie 
universe, its objects may not yet be completed. For we have reasf>n 
to believe that the work of creation is still going forward, and, con- 
sequently, that ncAv worlds and systems may be continually emerg- 
ing from nothing under the energies of Creating Power. However 
capacious, therefore, the intellects of good men, in a future world, 
may be, they will never be able fully to explore the extent and va- 
riety, " the riches and glory" of Him " who dwells in light unap- 
proachable ;" — yea, the most exalted of created intelligences, where- 
ever existing, although their mental powers and activities were 
incomparably superior to those of man, will be inadequate to a full 
investigation and comprehension of the grandeur and sublimities of 
that kingdom which extends throughout the regions of immensity. 
And this circumstance will constitute one ingredient of their hap- 
piness, and a security for its permanency. For, at every period 
of inlinite duration, they will be enabled to look forward to a suc- 
cession of scenes, objects and enjoyments different from all they 
had previously contemplated or experienced, without any prospect 
of a termination. We may therefore conclude, that, unless the 
material universe be demolished, and the activities of iinmortp.l 
minds suspended, the objects of astronomy will continue throughout 
eternity to be the subject of study, and of unceasing contemplation. 

Such are some of the advantages attending the study, of the sci- 
ence of astronomy. It lies at the foundation of our geographica. 
knowledge — it serves as a handmaid and director to the traveller 
and navigator — it is subservient to the ptirposes of universal com- 
merce — it 'determines the seasons, and directs the operations of the 
husbandman — it supplies us with an equable standard of time, and 
settles the events of history — it lends its aia to the propagation of le- 
Jigion, and undermines the foundation of superstition and astrology. 



INTRODUCTION. / XX 111 

Above all, it illustrates the glory of the perfections of the Deity- 
dibpiays the extent and grandeur of his universal empire — -affords 
subjects of sublime contemplation enlarges the conceptions, and in- 
vigorates the mental powers — counteracts the influence of pride, 
and promotes the exercise of humility — ji^-epares the soul for the 
employments of the future world — and demonstrates, that the Cre- 
ator has it in his power to open up endlessly diversified sources of 
happiness to ev^ery order of his intelligent offspring, throughout all 
the revolutions of eternity. The moral advantages arising from the 
study of this science, however, cannot be appreciated or enjoyed, 
unless such studies and investigations be prosecuted in connexion 
with the facts and prmciples of Revelation. But, when associated 
with the study of the Scriptures, and the character of God therein 
delineated, and the practice of Christian precepts, they are calcula- 
ted " to make the man of God perfect," to enlarge his conceptions 
of Divine perfection, and to expand his views of " the inheritance 
of the saints in light." 

Such being the advantages to be derived from the study of this 
science, it ought to form a subject of attention in every seminary 
intended for the mental and moral improvement of mankind. In 
order to the improvement of the young in this science, and that its 
objects may make a deep impression on their minds, they should be 
directed to make frequent observations, as opportunity offers, on 
the movements of the nocturnal heavens, and to ascertain all the 
facts which are obvious to the eye of an attentive spectator. And, 
while they mark the different constellations, the apparent diurnal 
motion of the celestial vault, the planets in their several courses, 
and the moon walking in her brightness among the host of stars — 
they should be indulged with views "of the rings of Saturn, the belts 
and satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Mercury and Venus, the 
numerous groups of stars in the Milky Way, the double and treble 
stars, the most remarkable Xc^buhc, thie mountains and plains, the 
caverns and circular ridges of hills which diversify the surface of 
the moon, as they appear through good achromatic or reflectmg 
telescopes. Without actual observation, and the exhibition of such 
interesting objects, the science of astronomy makes, comparatively, 
little iiipression on the mind. Our school books on astronomy 
should be popular in thnr lang'iige and illustrations, but, at the 
same time, they should bt coytipreke^sive in their details, and every 
exhibition should be clear and well aejiiiied. They should contain, 
not merely descriptions of facts, to be received on the authority of 
the author or the instructer, but illustrations of the reasons or argu- 
ments on which the conclusions of astronomy are founded, and of 
the viodes by which they have been ascertained. And, while pla- 
netariums, celestial globes, and planispheres of the heavens are ex- 
nibited, care should be taken to direct the observations of the pupils 
as frequently as possible, to the objects themselves, and to guard 
ihem against the limited ami distorted notions which all kinds of 
artificial representations have a tendency to convey. 

There is still room for improvement in all the initiatory books 
on this subject I have examined; but such bocks are now Vapidly 
improving, both as to iheir general plan, and the interesting nature 



XXIV IISTRODUCTION. 

of their details. I have seen nothing superior in this respect, or 
Detter adapted to the purpose of rational instruction, than IVCr, Bur- 

ell's excellent work entitled " The Geography of the Heavens," 
second edition, comprising 342 closely printed pages. It contains, 
in the first place, a full and interesting description of all the con- 
stellations, and principal stars in the heavens, interspersed with a 
great variety of mythological, historical and philosophical informar- 
Lion, calculated to amuse and instruct the general reader, and to 
arrest the attention of the young. The descriptions of the bodies 
3onnecied with the solar system, are both popular and scientific, 
containing a lucid exhibition of the facts which have been ascer- 

ained respecting them, and a rational explanation of the phenomena 
connected with their various aspects and motions. The Celestial 
Atlas which accompanies the work is varied, comprehensive, and 
•udiciously constructed, and forms tiie most complete set of plani^ 
pheres, for the purpose of teaching, which has nitherto been pub- 
lished. It consists of four maps about fourteen inches square, de- 
.ineated on the same principles as geographical projections, exhv 
citing the stars that pass near the meridian at a certain hour, along 
with the circumjacent constellations for every month, and for every 
day of the year. Besides these there are two circumpolar maps of 
the northern and southern hemispheres of the heavens, and a pla- 
nisphere on the principle of Mercator's projection, which exhibits 
at one view the sphere of the heavens, and the relative positions of 
the different constellations and principal stars. With the assistance 
of these maps, which in a great measure supersede the use of a 
celestial globe, an intelligent teacher may, at certain intervals in 
the course of a year, render his pupils familiar with most of the 
visible stars in the heavens : anH they Avil] make a deeper impres- 
sion on tneir minds wnen taugh' in tins w^y, than by the use of a 
globe. This worK, on the whole, indicates great industry and re- 
search on the part of the author, and a familiar acquaintance with 
the various departments of the science of the heavens. He has de- 
rived his materials from the most valuable and modern works of 
science, and has mtroduced not a few illustrations and calculations 
of his own, which tend to enhance the general utility of the work. 
The moral and religious reflections which the objects of ihi» science 
naturally suggest, have not been overlooked, and, I trust, will have 
a tendency to raise the minds of the young to hat Almighty Being 
whose power, wisdom, and superintending »^ y^i I'^n-^e a^e so stri- 
imglv displayed throughout the regions oi <>i * *» xrim -ii*. 



PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 



In entering uj^on this study, the phenomena of the heavens, 
as tney appear in a clear evening, are the first objects thai 
demand our attention. Our first step is to learn the names 
and positions of the heavenly bodies, so that we can identify, 
and distinguish them from each other. 

In this manner, they were observed and studied ages before 
books were written, and it was only after many, careful and 
repeated observations, that systems and theories of Astronomy 
were formed. To the visible heavens, then, the attention of 
the pupil should be first directed, for it is only when he shall 
have become in some measure, familiar with them, that he 
will be able to locate his Astronomical knowledge, or fully 
comprehend the terms of the science. 

For the sake of convenient reference, the heavens were 
early divided into constellations, and particular names assign- 
ed to the constellations and to the stars which they contain. A 
constellation may be defined to be a cluster or group of stars 
embraced in the outline of some figure. These tigures are in 
many cases, creaiions of tne imagination, but in others, the 
stars are in reality so arranged as to form figures which have 
some resemblance to the objects whose names have been as 
signed to them. 

These divisions of the celestial sphere, bear a striking analogy to the civil 
divisions ol the globe. The constellations answer to states and kinfdoms, the 
most brilliant clusters to towns and cities, and the number of stars in each, tc 
their respective population. The pupil can trace the boundaries of any constelr 
lation. and name all its stars, one by one. as readily as he can trace the buunda- 
ries of a state, or name the towns and cities from a map of New England. In 
this sense, there may be truly said to be a Geography of the Heavens. 

The stars are considered as forming, with reference to theii 
magnitudes, six classes ; the brightest being called stars ol 
the first magnitude, the next brightest, stars of the second 
magnitude, and so on to the sixth class, which consists of the 
mallest stars visible to the naked eye. In order to be able 

"Why, in entering upon the study of Astronomy, should the attention of the pupil be 
trst directed to th." visible heavens? Why were the heavens early divided into coiv. 
tellations, and naiies assigned to the constellations and the stars? What is a con- 
tellation? Do these figures really exist in the skies ? In lohal sense may there truly 
^' said to he a Geography of the Heavens ? How many classes are the stars considered 
forming with reference to their magnitude. 

3 






26 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER 

to designate, with precision their situations, imaginary circles 
have been considered as drawn in the heavens, most of which 
correspond to and are in the same plane with similar circles^ 
supposed, for similar purposes, to be drawn on the surface ol 
the Earth. 

In order to facilitate the study of it, artificial representations » 
of the heavens, similar to those of the surface of tHe Earth, 
have been made. Thus, a Celestial Atlas, composed of se- 
veral maps, accompanies this work. Before, however, pro- 
ceeding to explain its use, it is necessary to make the pupil 
acquainted with the imaginary circles alluded to above. 

Circles of the Sphere. — The Aaris of the Earth is an 
imaginary line, passing through its centre, north and south, 
about which its diurnal revolution is performed. 

The Poles of the Earth are the extremities of its axis. 

The A.vis of the Heavens is the axis of the Earth pro- 
duced both ways to the concave surface of the heavens. 

The Poles of the Heavens are the extremities of their axis. 

The Equator of the Earth is an imaginarv great circle 
passing round the Earth, east and west, everywhere equally 
distant from the poles, and dividing it into northern and 
southern hemispheres. 

The Equator of the Heavens^ or Equinoctial^ is the great 
circle formed on the concave surface of the heavens, by pro- 
ducing the plane of the Earth's equator. 

A plane is that which has surface but not thickness. The plane of a circle is 
Uiat imaginary superficies which is bounded by the circle. 

The Rational Horizon is an imaginary great circle, whose 
plane, passing through the centre of the Earth, divides the 
heavens into two hemispheres, of which the upper one is 
called the visible hemisphere, and the lower one, the invisi- 
ble hemisphere. It is the plane of this circle which deter- 
mines the rising and setting of tlie heavenly bodies. 

The Sensible or Apparent Horizon, is the circle which 
lerminates our view, where the Earth and sky appear to meet. 

To a person standing on a plain, this circle is but a few miles in diameter. II 
Ihe eye be elevated five feet, the radius of the sensible horizon will be less than 
two miles and three quarters; if the eye be elevated six fee', it will be just three 
mile*. Tlie observer being always in the centre of the sensible horizon, it will 
■love as he moves, and enlarge or contract, as his station is elevated or depreM- 
ed 



"NVhal expedient has been devised for designating, with precision, the situations of 
the heavenly bodies? Wliat is the axis of the Earth? What are the poles of the Earth? 
What is the axis of the heavens? What are the poles of the he ivens? What i.^ the 
equator of the Earth ? What is the equator of *he heavens or the equinoctial ? HTiat it 
a plane 7 IVhat w the plant of a circle 1 What is the ratlohal horizon ? What is the 
sensible or apparent horizon ■> What is the diameter of this circle to a person stand- 
ing on a plain ? What will its radius be if the eye be elevated Jive feet ) If it be e.^ 
tnted sis feet ? On what does the place qfUa centre and its circwnuercnce depend i 



PRELianNAKY CHAPTER. 27 

The Poles of the Horizon are two pomls, of wliich the one 
l^ directly over head, and is called the Zenith ; the other is 
directly under foot, and is called the Nadir. 

Vertical Circles are circles drawn through the Zenith and 
Nadir of any place, cutting the horizon at right angles. 

The Prime Vertical is that which passes through the east 
and west points of the horizon. 

The Ecliptic is the great circle which the Sun appears to 
describe annually among the stars. It crosses the Equinoc- 
lial, a little obliquely, in two opposite points which are called 
the Equinoxes. The Sun rises in one of these points on the 
21st of March ; this point is called the Vernal Equinox. It 
sets in the opposite point on the 23d of September ; this point 
is called the Autumnal Equinox. One half of the ecliptic lies 
on the north side of the Equinoctial, the other half on the 
south side, making an angle with it of 23^°. This angle is 
called the obliquity of the Ecliptic. The axis of the Eclip- 
tic makes the same angle with the axis of the heavens ; so 
that the poles of each are 23|^° apart. 

This angle is perpetually decreasing. At the commencement of the Christian 
era, it%vas about 23-' 45'. At the beginning of 1S35, it was only 23^ 27' 33 ". show- 
ing an annual diminution of about half a second, or 45". 70 in a hundred years. 
A. tinie will arrive, however, when this angle, having reached its minimum, will 
again increase in the same ratio that it had before diminished, and thus it will 
continue to oscillate at long periods, between certain limits, which are said to be 
comprised within the space of 20° 42'. 

The ecliptic, like every other circle, contains 360°, and it is 
divided into 12 equal arcs of 30° each, called signs, which the 
ancients distinguished by particular names. This division 
commences at the vernal equinox, and is continued east- 
wardly round to the same point again, in the following order: 
Aries. Taurus^ Gemini. Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scor- 
pio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces. The Sun, 
commencing at the first degree of Aries, about the 21st of 
March, passes, at a mean rate, through one sign every month. 

The Zodiac is a zone or girdle, about 16 degrees in breadth, 
extending quite round the heavens, and including all the 
heav^enly bodies within 8° on each side of the ecliptic. It in- 
cludes, also, the orbits of all the planets, except some of the 
asteroids, since they are never seen beyond 8° either north or 
south of the ecliptic. 

Parallels of Latitude are small circles imagined to be 

What are th« <)oles of the horizon? What are vertical circles ? What is the prinw 
vertical? What i.'; the ecliptic? What are the equinoxes? The vernal eo.iiinox'' The 
tutumnal equinox? How is the ecliptic situated with respect to the equinoctial ? What 
b the obliquity of the ecliptic ? Describe the manner i» which (his an^le varies. De- 
ficril)e the ilivision of the ecliptic into sijrns. How jiiuch, at a mean rite- does the Sun 
vlvanre in the ecliptic every month? What is the zo*liac? What are parallels of 
«atitu,le) 



28 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 

drawn on the Earth's surface, north and south of the equator, 
and parallel to it. 

Parallels of Declination are small circles, imagined to be 
drawn on the concave surface of the heavens, north and south 
of the equinoctial, and parallel to it; or they may be consid- 
ered as circles formed by producing the parallels of latitude 
to the heavens. 

The Tropic of Cancer is a small circle, which lies 23^° 
north of the equinoctial, and parallel to it. The Tropic oj 
Capricorn is a small circle, which lies 23^° south of tli'? 
equinoctial, and parallel to it. On the celestial sphere, these 
two circles mark the limits of the Sun's farthest declination 
north and south. On the terrestial sphere, they divide the 
torrid, from the two temperate zones. That point in the 
ecliptic which touches the tropic of Cancer, is called ihe Sum- 
mer Solstice ; and that point in the ecliptic which touches 
the tropic of Capricorn, is called the Winter Solstice. 

The distance of these two points from the equinoctial, is always equal to the 
obliquity of the ecliptic, which, in round numbers, is 23c° ; but as we have seen 
the obUquity of the ecliptic is continually changing ; therefore the position of thb 
tropics must make a correspondent change. 

The Colures are two great circles which pass through the 
poles of the heavens, dividing the ecliptic into four equal 
parts, and mark the seasons of the year. One of them passes 
through the equinoxes at Aries and Libra, and is thence 
called the Equinoctial Colure ; the other passes through the 
solstitial points or the points of the Sun's greatest declination 
north and south, and is thence called the Solstitial Colure. 

The Sun is in the equinoctial points the '21st of March and the 23d of Septum 
ber. He is in the solstitial points the 22d of June and the 22d of December. 

The Polar Circles are two small circles, each about 66^° 
from the equator, being always at the same distance from the 
poles that the tropics are from the equator. The northern is 
called the Arctic circle, and the southern the Antarctic 
circle. 

Meridians are imaginary great circles drawn through the 
poles of the world, cutting the equator and the equinoctial at 
right angles. 

Every place on the Earth, and every corresponding point in the heavens, it 
i»nsidered as having a meridian passing through it ; alUiough astronomers apply 



What are parallels of declination? What is the tropic of cancer? What l.s the tropic 
ef Capricorn? What is the summer solstice? What is the winter solstice? \MitU U 
their dintancefrom the eqiuUur, compared with the obliquity of the ecliptic? h this 
distance ahoays the same? What are the colures? What is the equlncx^tiril colurel 
What is the solstitial colure? On what Javs of the year Is the sun in the equinoctial 
points? On what days, is he in the solstitial points? What are the polar cirlcs' By 
what names, are they distinsuislievl? What are meriilians? Haw viany mcridiam 
are there 1 How many, do astronomers apply to the heavens 7 



PRELUHNARY CHAPTER. 29 

r>nt !24 to ihe heavens, thns diviiin? the whole concave surface into 24 sections, 
each 15° in width. These meridians mark the space which the hee^venly bodies 
appear to describe, everj' hour, for the 24 hours of the day. They are thence 
sonietmies denominated Hour Circles. 

In measuring distances and determining positions on the Earth, the equator, 
and some fixed meridian, as that of Greenwich, contain the primary starting 
points ; in the heavens, these points are in the echptic, the equinoctial, and thai 
great meridian which passes through the first point of Aries, called the equinoc- 
tial colure. 

Latitude on the Earth, is distance norm or south of the 
equator, and is measured on a meridian. 

Latitude in the Heavens, is distance north or south of the 
ecliptic, and at right angles with it 

Longitude on the Earth, is distance either east or wesl 
from some fixed meridian, measured on the equator. 

Longitude in the Heavens, is distance east from the fii'st 
point of Aries, measured on the ecliptic. 

DeclinMion is the distance of a heavenly hody either north 
or south of the equinoctial, measured on a meridian. 

Right Ascension is the distance of a heavenly body east 
from the first point of Aries, measured on the equinoctiaL 

It is more convenient to describe the situation of the heavenly bodies by their 
declination and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitude, smce the 
former correspond to terrestrial latitmle and longitude. 

Latitude and declination may extend 90- and no more. Terrestrial longitude 
may extend ISO^ either east or west ; but celestial longitude and right ascen- 
sion, being reckoned in only one direction, extend entn'ely round the circle, oi 
360°. 

In consequence of the Earth's motion eastward m its orbit, 
the stars seem to have a motion westAvard, besides theii 
apparent diurnal motion caused by the Earth's revolution on 
its axis ; so that they rise and set sooner every succeeding 
day by about four minutes, than they did on the preceding. 
This is called their daily acceleration. It amounts to just 
two hours a month. 

Example.— Those stars and constellations which do not rise nntil 10 o'cIocR 
this evening, will, at the same hour, one month hence, be 30° above the 
horizon ; and, for the same reason, those stars whicli we see directly over head 
this evening, will at the same hour, three months hence, be seen setting in the 
west ; having in this time, performed one fourth of their apparent annual revo- 
lution. 

The following table of sidereal revolutions, shows the difference between solat 
and sidereal time. Tlie first column contains the numbers of complete revolu- 
tions of the stars, or of the Earth's rotation on its axis; the second exhibits the 

Into how many sections, do these meridians divide the concave surface of the heavens 1 
Of what width are these sections ? UTiy are these meridians sometimes called hour cir- 
cles / In measuring distances on the Earth, lohut circles contain the primary starting 
points ? Where are theae points in measuring- distances in the heavens 1 What is la- 
titude on the Earth? What is latitude in the heavens? What is longitude on the Earth? 
What is lonsitude in the heavens? What is declination? What is risht asccnsioni 
Why is it more convenient to describe the situation of the heavenly bodies by their de- 
clination and right ascension, than by their latitude and longitude 7 Haia many d& 
grees may latitude and declination extend ? Hoiv many terrestrial lonsitude ? Htr.9 
many celestial longitude? What is meant l)y the daily accelenition of the stars? To 
now many n^inuies does it amount? Illustrate thiji subiect with an txamplt. 



dO 



PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 



times in which these revolutions are made ; and the third, shows how muc*i 
the Stars gain on the Sun every day — 'hat is, how much sooner they rise aad 
e«me to the meridian every succeeding day, than they did on the preceding 



Revolutions 


Times in which Revolutions 


of the Stars. 




are made. 






days. 


ho. 


min. 


sec. 


1 




23 


56 


4 


2 


1 


23 


52 


8 


3 




23 


48 


12 


4 




23 


44 


16 


5 




23 


40 


20 


6 




23 


36 


24 


7 




23 


32 








23 


26 


32 


9 




23 


24 


36 


■JO 




23 


20 


41 


n 




23 


16 


45 


12 




23 


12 


49 


13 




23 


d 


53 


14 




23 


4 


57 


15 




23 


I 


1 


16 




22 


57 


5 


17 




22 


53 


9 


18 




22 


49 


13 


19 




22 


45 


17 


20 




22 


41 


22 


21 


20 


22 


37 


26 


22 


21 


22 




30 


23 


22 


22 


29 


34 


24 


23 


22 


25 


38 


25 


24 


22 


21 


42 


26 


25 


22 


17 


46 


27 


26 


22 


13 


50 


28 


27 


22 


9 


54 


29 


28 


22 


5 


58 


30 


29 


22 


2 


3 


40 


39 


21 


22 


44 


50 


49 


20 


43 


25 


100 


99 


17 


26 


50 


200 


199 




53 


40 


300 


299 




20 


30 


360 


359 




24 


36 


365 


364 




4 


56 


366 


365 




1 






Daily acceleration of the 
Stars. 


h. 


min. 


sec. 




3 


59 




7 


61 




11 


47 




15 


43 




19 


3» 




23 


as 




27 


31 




31 


27 




35 


23 




39 


19 




43 


14 




47 


10 




51 


6 




55 


2 




58 


58 




2 


54 




6 


50 




10 


46 




14 


42 




18 


36 




22 


33 




26 


29 




30 


25 




34 


21 






17 




42 


13 




46 


9 




50 


5 




54 


1 




57 


57 




37 


16 




16 


35 




33 


10 




S 


9 




39 


29 


23 


35 


23 


23 


55 


3 


23 


69 






On this account, we have not always the same constella 
tions visible to us throughout the year. While some, that 
were not visible before, are successively rising to view in the 
east, and ascending to the meridian, others sink beneath the 
western horizon, and are seen no more, until, having passed 
through the lower hemisphere, they again reappear in the east. 

It IS easy to convert right ascension into time, or time into right ascension . 
for if a heavenly body is one hour in passing over 15°, it will be one fifteenth o« 
(in hour, or 4 minutes, in passing over 1°. 

If the first point of Aries be on the meridian at 12 o'clock, the next hour line, 
which is 15° E. of it, will come to the meridian at 1 o'clock ; the second houi 
^ine at 2 o'clock ; th»' third at 3, &c. Of any two bodies whose right ascensions 
»re given, that one will pass the mcridian^rsV which has the least right ascension. 

The first map of the atlas represents, upon a large scale 
I general view of the solar system. 

This will be more fully described in the Second Part of the work. 

Do we always see the same constellations? Explain themanner qf converting rigfu 
^tcension into time, and tinie into right ascension. 



PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 31 

The next six maps represent different sections of the concave 
Burface of the heavens. The first of these exliibits the principal 
constellations visible to us in October, November and Decem- 
ber ; the second, those visible in January, February and March j 
the third, those visible in April, May and June ; and the 
fourth, those visible in July, August and September ; with 
the exception, however, of the constellations which lie be- 
yond the 50th degree of north and south declination, of which, 
mdeed, those around the North Pole are always^ and those 
around the South Pole, never, visible to us. 

These constellations are represented on the sixth and seventh 
maps, called circumpolar maps, which are an exact continu- 
ation of the ethers, and if joined to them at their correspond- 
ing degrees of right ascension and declination, they mi^ht be 
considered as constituting one map. The scale on which all 
the above-mentioned maps are drawn is that of a 16 inch 
globe. The lines drawn on the maps have been already de- 
fined ; and their use, being nearly the same with those in 
Geography, will be readily understood. Those which are 
drawn from right to left, on each side of the equinoctial and 
parallel to it, are called Parallels of Declination. Those 
which are drawn up and down through the. maps, at intervals 
of 15°, are called Meridians of Right Ascension, or Hour 
Circles. The scale at the top and bottom of the first four 
maps, and in the circumference of the circumpolar maps, in- 
dicates the daily progress of the stars in right ascension, and 
shows on what day of the month any star will be on the me 
ridian at 9 o'clock in the evening. 

The constellation called the Great Bear is an exception to this iTile ; in this 

tcnstellation the principal stars are marked in the order of their right ascension. 

That point of projection for the maps which would exhibit each successive 

Eortion of the heavens directly over head at 9 o'clock, in the evening, was chosen, 
eciuse in sununer at an earlier hour the twihght would bedim our observaiion 
of the stars, and at other seasons of the year it is easier to look up to stars ihat 
want an hour ol their meridian altitude than to these which are directly over 
head. 

It will be readily seen that the stars are so represented on the maps as to show 
their relative magnitudes. The method invented by Bayer, of designating them 
by the letters of the Greek and Roman alphabets, is ailopted. Thus in eacli con- 
stellation the stars are marked alpha, beta, <fec., and should the letters of the 
Greek alphabet be exhausted, those of the Roman are employed. Some of the 
surs have also proper names. 

The first four maps of the heavens are so constructed that the 

For what months does the first map represent the l^eavens? For what months di>es 
Ihe seconil map represent the heavens? The thinl? The fourth? "What constellati.nis 
axe represented on the sixth and seventh maps? In what mimner must these six maps 
oe arranseil tv form one coniplere map of the heavens ? On what scnle are these maps 
Irawn ? What Is the use of the scale at the top ami bottom of the first four maps, and 
In the circumference of the circumpolar maps ? Why icas that -point qf praoection foj 
the mapi. which would represent each successive partion of the heavens directly over 
head at 9 o'clock in the evening, chosun i 'What is the method by which the stars an 
iesi-s-nated on the maps ? How must the pupil, in using either of ihe firsi four nkaps 
^na^ine himself to sUmd and to hold it? 



32 PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 

pupil in using them must suppose himself to face the south, and 
'o hold them directly over head in such manner that the top of 
the map shall be towards the north, and the bottom towards 
the south ; the right hand side of the map will then be west, 
and the left hand east. In using the circumpolar maps he 
must suppose himself to face the pole, and to hold them in 
such a manner that the day of the given month shall be up- 
permost. The Celestial Planisphere represents the whole 
heavens lying between 70 degrees of north and south decli- 
nation, not as the surface of a concave sphere, but of a con- 
cave cylinder, and spread out so as to form a plam surface. 
A great variety of interesting problems, including almost all 
those that are peculiar to the celestial globe, may be solved 
upon it with facility and readiness. 

We may now imagine the pupil ready to begm the study 
of the visible Heavens. The first thing of importance is to 
fix U])on the proper starting point. This, on many accounts, 
would seem to be the North Polar Star. Its position is ap- 
parentlv the same every hour of the night throughout the 
year, while the other stars are continually movmg. Many of 
the stars also in that region of the skies never set, so that 
when the sky is clear, they may be seen at any hour of the 
night. They revolve about the Pole in small circles, and 
never disappear below the horizon. On this account they are 
said to be within the circle of perpetual apparition. On the 
other hand, the identity of the North Polar Star, strange as 
it may appear, is not so easily determined, by those Avho are 
just entering upon this study, as that of some others. For 
this reason, the point directly over head, called the zenith, 
is preferable, since upon this point every one can fix with cer- 
tainty in whatever latitude he may be. It will be alike to all 
tne central point of the visible heavens, and to it the pupil 
will learn imperceptibly to refer the bearing, motion, and dis 
ances of the heavenly bodies. 

That meridional point in each map, whose declination corresponds with 
•.he latitude of the place of observation, represents the zenith of the heavens 
at that place; and those constellations of stars which occupy this position 
on the maps, will be seen directly over head at 9 o'clock in the evening of the 
day tlircvuirh which the meridian passes. — Thus in Georgia, for instance, tlie 
etartiiig point should be those stars which are situated in this meridian near the 
33d degree oi north declination, while in New England it should be those which 
are niualed in it near the 42d degree. 

How, in usln? the circumpolar maps? Describe the construction and use of the Co 
lestial Planisphere. Wlien the pu|nl is ready to begin the study of the visible huav 
ens, what is the first step to be taken ? What advantages has the North Polar Star, as 
a proper sUining point? What disadvantages ? What point is prefentble to the PoUir 
Star? Why is it preferable? How may the point corresponding tc this be found upon 
the maps? At what time in the evening, will the utars which are near this point on 
the maps, be seen directly aver head 7 Is it indispensiibly necessary to begin with the 
•tars near this central n eridiam 



PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 33 

We mighty noweyer, begin with the stars near eithe • ot the 
meridians represented on the maps, the only rule of selection 
being to commence at that which approaches nearest to being 
over head at the time required. 

We have chosen for our starting point in this work, that 
meridian which passes through the vernal equinox at the first 
point of Aries, not only because it is the meridian from which 
the distances of all the heavenly bodies are measured ; but 
especially because the student will thus be enabled to observe 
and compare the progressive motion of the constellations ac- 
cording to the order in which they are always arra^iged in 
catalogues, and also to mark the constellatioxis of the Zodiac 
Dassing over head as they rise one after another in their or- 
der, and to trace among them the orbits of the Earth and of 
the other planets. 

As Greek letters so' frequently occur in catalogues and maps of the stars and 
on the celestial globes, the Greek alphabet is here introduced lor the use of those 
who are unacquainted with it. The capitals are seldom used for designating the 
stars, but are here given for the sake of regularity. 





THE GREEK ALPHABET. 




A 


a 


Alpha 


a 


B 


/? 


Beta 


b 


r 


y 


Gamma 


g 


A 


6 


Delta - 


d 


E 


t 


Epsilon 


e short 


Z 


; 


Zeta 


z 


H 


r) 


Eta 


e long 


e 


9 


Theta , 


th 


I 


I 


Iota 


i 


K 

A 


K 

X 


Kappa 
Lambda 


k 


M 


ft 


Mu 


m 


N 


W 


Nu 


n 


S 


1 


XI 


X 








Omicron 


short 


n 


ir 


Pi 


p 


p 


P 


Rho 




E 


S 


Sigma 


3 


T 


r 


Tau 


t 


Y 


V 


Upsilon 


U 


$ 


<P 


ph 


X 


X 


Chi 


ch 


^ 


% 


Psi 


ps 


a 




Omega 


long 


In 1603, John Bayer, of Augsburg, m 


Germany, published 


1 complete Atlas of 


all tlie constellations, with the useful invention of denoting 


the stars in every 



What is the only rule of selection ? What is the starting point chosen for this v 
W^hat advantages has this men iian as a starling point J 



34 



PREL.'»\Vf.RY CHAPTER. 



constellation by the hitters of the n^ttX ftnd Roman Alphabets; assigning the 
Greek letter a to the principal stai i in AX.zh constel'at>oa, /i to tht second in 
magnituiJe, ^ to the third, and so on; »\id vhen the Cieck alphabet was ex- 
hausted, the notation was carried on \*iih il\-i RotiiiVi leaera, a, b, c, Ax. That 
the memory might not be perplexed with a multitude of aauies, this ccnre^ient 
method of designating the stars has been rdtpleJ by a.h succeeding astroaoaijit, 
w/io have farther enlarged it by the Arabic ttTftioi\ 1, 2, 3, <tc. whenarjr tL» 
stars in the constellations outnumbered both alphabets. 



INCREASE OF SIDEREAL TIME IN MEA^ SOLAR HOURS^ &c. 




Increase, 
ra. sec. 


Min. 


Incr. 


Min. 


Incr. 


^'C 


Incr. 


See 


Incr 


ao irs. 


sec. 


sec. 


sec. 


sec 


1 


9.857 


1 


0.164 


31 


5.093 




0.003 


31 


0.085 


2 


19.713 


2 


329 


32 


257 


2 


006 


32 


068 


3 


29.569 


3 


493 


33 


421 


3 


008 


33 


J90 


4 


39.426 


4 


657 


34 


585 


4 


Oil 


ai 


093 


5 


49.232 


5 


821 


35 


750 


5 


014 


35 


096 


6 


59.139 


6 


986 


36 


914 


6 


016 


36 


099 


7 


1 8.995 


7 


1.150 


37 


6.078 


7 


019 


37 


101 


8 


18.852 


8 


314 


38 


242 


8 


022 


38 


104 


9 


28.703 


9 


479 


39 


407 


9 


025 


39 


107 


10 


38.565 


10 


643 


40 


571 


10 


027 


40 


110 


11 


48.421 


11 


807 


41 


735 


11 


030 


41 


112 


12 


58.278 


12 


971 


42 


900 


12 


033 


42 


115 


13 


2 8.134 


13 


2.136 


43 


7.064 


13 


036 


43 


113 


14 


17.991 


14 


300 


44 


228 


14 


038 


44 


121 


15 


27.847 


15 


464 


45 


392 


15 


041 


45 


1-23 


16 


37.704 


16 


628 


46 


557 


16 


044 


46 


126 


17 


47.560 


17 


793 


47 


721 


17 


047 


47 


1-29 


13 


57.417 


18 


957 


48 


885 


18 


049 


48 


131 


19 


3 7.273 


19 


3.121 


49 


8.050 


19 


052 


49 


lat 


20 


17.130 


20 


286 


50 


214 


20 


055 


50 


137 


21 


26.986 


21 


4.50 


51 


378 


21 


058 


51 


140 


22 


mM2 


22 


614 


52 


542 


22 


060 


52 


142 


23 


46.609 


23 


778 


53 


707 


23 


063 


53 


145 


24 


56.5.55 


24 


W3 


54 


871 


24 


066 


54 


148 






25 


4.107 


55 


9.035 


25 


069 


55 


151 




Daily acceleration 


26 


271 


56 


199 


26 


071 


56 


153 


ofa;?tar in passing 


27 


4a5 


57 


364 


27 


074 


57 


156 


me meridian, 


28 


600 


58 


528 


28 


077 


58 


159 


m. sec. 


29 


7G4 


59 


692 


29 


079 


£? 


162 


8 


55.9095 


30 


928 


60 


857 


1 30 


082 


60 


161 



THE 

GEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS. 



CHAPTER I. 

<RECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE OS 
THE MERIDIAN IN NOVEMBER. 

ANDROMEDA. 

If we look directly over head at 10 o'clock, on the 10th o 
November, we shaU see the constellation celebrated in fable, 
by the name of Andromeda. It is represented on the map by 
the figure of a woman having her arms extended, and chained 
by her wrists to a rock. It is bounded N. by Cassiopeia, E. 
by Perseus and the head of Medusa, and S. by the Triangles 
and the Northern Fish. It is situated between 20° and 50° 
of N. declination. Its mean right ascension is nearly 15° ; 
or one hour E. of the equinoctial colure. 

It consists of 66 visible stars, of which three are of the 2d 
magnitude, and two of the 3d ; most of the rest are small. 

The stars directly in the zenith, are too small to be seen in 
the presence of the moon, but the bright star Almaack, of the 
2d magnitude, in the left foot, may be seen 13° due E., and 
Merach, of the same magnitude, in' the girdle, 7° south of the 
zenith. This star is then nearly on the meridian, and with 
tAvo others N. W. of it forms the girdle. 

The three stars forming the girdle are of the 2d, 3d, and 
4th magnitude, situated in a row, 3° and 4° apart, and are 
called Merach, Mu and Nu. 

About 2° from Nu at the northwestern extremity of the 
girdlfe, is a remarkable nebula of very minute stars, and the 
only one of the kind which is ever visible to the naked eye. It 
resembles two cones of light, joined at their base, about §° in 
lenfjth, and ^° in breadth. 

we look directly over head at 10 o'clock on the lOth of November, what constella- 
tion shall we see? Howls it represented on the map? How is it bounded? "WTiat are ita 
rirrit ascension and declination? How many Tisibie stars has It? Describe the ginll« 
ot Andromeda. Describe tlve appe^rwic* <k i !«E«j\abl« oebula which lies at lU 
northwestern tttr«mity. 



36 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. 

If a straig t line, connecting Almaack with Merach, be 
produced southwesterly, 8° farther, it will reach to Delta, a 
star of the 3d magnitude in the left breast. This star may 
be otherwise known by its forming a line, N. and S. with 
two smaller ones on either side of it ; or, by its constituting, 
with two others, a very small triangle, S. of it. 

Nearly in a line with Almaack, Merach and Delta, Dut 
curving a little to the N. 7° farther, is a lone star of the 2d 
magnitude, in the head, called Alpheratz. This is the N. E. 
corner of the great " Square of Pegasus," to be hereafter de- 
scribed. 

It will be well to have the position of Alpheratz well fixed in the mind, bccaus^e 
it is but one minute west of the great equinoctial colure, or first meridian of the 
heavens, and forms nearly a right line with Algenib in the wing of Pegasus, 14° 
S. of it, and with Beta in Cassiopeia, 30° N. of it. If a line, connecting these three 
stars, be produced, it will terminate in the pole. These three guides, in connex 
ion with tlxe North Polar Star point out to astronomers the position of that great 
circle in the heavens from which the right ascension of all the heavenly bodies 
is measured. 

History —The story of Andromeda, from which this constellation derives its 
name, is as follows : She was daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, by Cassio- 
peia. She was promised in marriage to Phineus, her uncle, when Ne])tune 
drowned the kingdom, and sent a sea monster to ravage the country, to appease 
the resentment which his favourite Nymphs bore against Cassiopeia, because 
she had boasted hei'self fairer than Juno and the Nereides. The oracle of Ju- 
uiter Ammon was consulted, and nothing could pacify the anger of Neptune 
unless the beautiful Andr-omeda should be exposed to the sea monster. She was 
accordingly chained to a rock for this purpose, near Joppa, (now Jaffa, in Syria,) 
and at the moment the monster was going to devour her, Perseus, who was then 
returning through the air from the conquest of the Gorgons, saw her and was 
captivated by her beauty. 

"Chained to a rock she stood ; young Perseus stay'd 
His rapid flight, to woo the beauteous maid." 

He promised to deliver her and destroy the monster if Cepheus would give 
her to him in marriage. Cepheus consenteil, and Perseus instantly changed the 
sea monster into a rock, by showing him Medusa's head, which was still reeking 
in his hand. The enraged Phineus opposed their nuptials and a violent battle 
ensued, in which he, also, was turned into a stone by the petrifying influence ot 
the Gorgon's head. 

The morals, maxims, and historical events of the ancients, were usually con> 
municated in fable or allegory. The fable of Andromeda and the sea monster, 
might mean that she was courted by some monster of a sea-captain, who at- 
tempted to carry her away, but was prevented by another more gallant and suc- 
cessful rival. 

PISCES. 

The Fishes. — This constellation is now the first in order, 
of the 12 constellations of the Zodiac, and is usually repre- 
sented by two fishes tied a considerable distance apart, at the 
extreinities of a long undulating cord, or riband. It occupies 

Describe the magnitude and position of Delta. How may this star be otherwise 
Ituown? Describe the position and magnitude of Alpheratz. What position does this 
%.Vr occui./ in the great square of Pegasus? Why is it important to have the position 
a* . «» tiisr well fixed in the mind 7 "What is the present order of the Fishes among 
&% .war lations of the Zodiac ] How is it represented ? Describe its outline and Ji"ac« 
a -Jift V ens. 



fiscEs. ' 37 

» larsfe trianOTlar space in the heavens, and Us outline at first 

IS somewhat difBcult to be traced. 

In consequence of tlie annual precession of the stars, the constellation Pisces 
nas now come to occupy the sign Aries; each constellation having advanced 
one whole sign in the order of the Zodiac. The sim enters the sign Pisces, 
while the earth enters that of Virgo, about the 19th of Februarj', but he does not 
reach the constellation Pisces before the 6th of March. The Fishes, therefore, 
trft now called the "Leaders of the Celestial Hosts." — >S'ee Aries. 

That loose assemblage of small stars directly south of 
Merach, in the constellation of Andromeda, constitutes the 
Northern Fish, whose mean length is about 16°, and breadth, 
7°. Its mean right ascension is 15°, and its declination 25° 
N. Consequently, it is on the meridian the 24th of Novem- 
ber ; and, from its breadth, is more than a week in passing 
over it. The Northern Fish and its riband, beginning at 
Merach, may, by a train of small stars, be traced, in a S. S. 
easterly direction, for a distance of 33°, until we come to the 
star El Rischa, of the 3d magnitude, which is situated in the 
node, or Jle.Ture of the riband. This is the principal star in 
the constellation, and is situated 2° N. of the equinoctial, and 
53 minutes east of the meridian. 

Seven degrees S. E. of El Rischa, passing by three or four very small stats 
we come to Mira, in the Whale, a star of about the 3d magnitude, and iniown as 
tlie " Wonderful Star of 1596." El Rischa may be othei-wise identified by means 
of a remarkable cluster of five stars in the form of a. pentagon, about 15^ E. of 
't. — See Cetiis. 

From El Rischa the riband or cord makes a sudden flexure, 
doubling back across the ecliptic, where we meet with three 
stars of the 4th and 5th magnitude situated in a row 3° and 
4° apart, marked on the map Zeta, Epsilon, Delta. From 
Delta the riband runs north and westerly along the Zodiac, 
and terminates at Beta, a star of the 4th magnitude, 11° S. 
of Markab in Pegasus. 

This part of the riband including the Western Fish at the 
end of it, has a mean declination of 5° N., and may be seen 
throughout the month of November, passing the meridian 
?lowly to the W., near where the sun passes it on the 1st ol 
April.' Twelve degrees W. of this Fish, there are 4 small 
stars situated in the form of the ktter Y. The two Fishes, 
and the cord between them, make two sides of a large 
triangle, 30° and 40° in length, the open part of which is 
towards the N. W. When the Northern Fish is on the 

"Wiiat are the size and position of the Northern Fish ? When, and how long is it on the 
.■nerldian? How may it be traced? What is the principal star in this constellation, and 
where is it situated? Howfar, and in what direction from Alpha, is Mira, in the Whale? 
By what penuliar appellation is this star known? What is the ilirection of the riband from 
Alpha? What stars do we meet with, where the riband doubles back across the eclip- 
se? What is the (.Urection of this part of the riband from Dflta, ainl where does it ter- 
.ninate? What are its mean declination, and the time of its p.nssinsr the meridian? What 
striking cluster is seen about 12° W. of the Western Fish? What geometrical fijrure 
nay be conceived to be formed by the two Fishes and the cord between them? Whew 
is the Western Fish when the Northern is on the meridian ? 

4 



38 PICTURE OF THE HEAVKNS. [MO 

meridian, the Western is nearly 2 hours past it. This co. 
stellation is bounded N. by Andromeda, W. by Andromeu 
and Pegasus, S. by the Cascade, and E. by the Whale, ll-* 
Ram and the Triangles. 

When, to enable the pupil to find any star, its direction from another is giveiv, 
the latter is always understood to be on the meridian. 

After a little experience with the maps, even though unaccompanied hy c*i 
rections, the mgenious youth will be able, of himself, to devise a great many e^ 
pedients and facihties for ti'acing the constellations, or selecting out particuli 
stars. 

History. — The ancient Greeks, who have some fable to account for the or* 
gin of ahnost every constellation, say, that as Venus and her son Cupid were on» 
day on the bjmks of the Euphrates, they were greatly alarmed dX the appcaranc* 
of a terrible giant, named Typhon. Throwing themselves into the river, thef 
were changed into fishes, and by this means escaped danger. To commemoraw 
this event, Minerva placed two fishes among the stars. 

According to Ovid, Homer, and Virgil, this Typhon was a famous giant. Ht 
had a hundred heads, like those of a serpent or dragon. Flames of devouring' 
fire darted from his mouth and eyes. He was no sooner born, than he mad* 
war against heaven, and so frightened the gods, that they fled and assumed dif 
ferent shapes. Jupiter became a ram ; Mercury, an ibis ; Apollo, a crow ; Juno^ 
a cow ; Bacchus, a goal ; Diana, a cat ; Venus, a fish, &c. The father of th« 
gods, at least, put Typhon to flight, and crushed him under Mount iEtna. 

The obvious sentiment implied in the fable of this hideous monster, is evi- 
dently this : that there is in the world a description of men whose mouth is sc 
"full of cursing and bitterness," derision and violence, that modest virtue ia 
sometimes forced to disguise itself, or flee from their presence. 

In the Hebrew Zodiac, Pisces is allotted to the escutcheon of Simeon. 

No sign appears to have been considered of more malignant influence than 
Pisces. The astrological calendar describes the emblems of this constellation 
as indicative of violence and death. Both the Syrians and Egyptians abstained 
from eating fish, out of dread and abhorrence ; and when the latter would re- 
present any thing as odious, or express hata-ed by hieroglyphics, they painted a 
fish. 

In using a circumpolar map, face the pole, and hold it up in your hands in • 
euch a manner that the part which contains the name of the given month shall 
be uppermost, and you will have a portraiture of the heavens as seen at that 
time. 

The constellations about the Antarctic Pole are not visible in the United 
States ; those about the Arctic or northern pole, are always visible. 



CASSIOPEIA. 

Cassiopeia is represented on the celestial map, in regal 
state seated on a throne or chair, holding in her left hand the 
branch of a palm tree. Her head and body are seen in the 
Milky Way. Her foot rests upon the Arctic Circle, upon 
which her chair is phiced. She is surrounded by the chiei 
personages of her royal family. The king, her husband, is 
on her right hand — Perseus^, her son-in-law, on her left — and 
Andromeda, her daughter, just above her. 

This constellation is situated 26^ N. of Andromeda, and 
midAvay between it and the North Polar Star. It may be 

What a»>, !lne bcmiaR ;8 of this constellation! How is the constellation Cassfopeli 
W)i;»ri» « v>i nvx By whom is she surrounded) How is this constellation 
UsteiMi. m, Sfi. ■**:*» '^ as%ne(ia and the polar star? 



MAP VI. I CASSIOPEIA.. 39 

seen, from our latitude, at all hours of the night, and may be 
traced out at almost any season of the year. Its mean decli- 
nation is 60° N. and its right ascension 12°. It is on our 
meridian the 22d of November, but does not sensibly change 
its position for several days ; for it should be remembered 
that the apparent motion of the stars becomes slower and 
sloAver, as they approximate the poles. 

Cassiopeia is a beautiful constellation, containing 55 stars 
that are visible to the naked eye ; of which five are of the 3d 
magnitude, and so situated as to form, with one or two 
smaller ones, the figure of an inverted chair. 

" Wide her stars 



Dispersed, nor shine with mutual aid improved; 
Nor dazzle, brilliant with comiguous flame; 
Their number filty-five." 

Caph, in the garland of the chair, is almost exactly in the 
equinoctial colure, 30° N. of Alpheratz, with which, and the 
Polar Star, it forms a straight line. \_See note to Androme- 
da.'] Caph is therefore on the meridian the 10th of Novem- 
ber, and one hour past it on the 24th. It is the westernmost 
star of the bright cluster. Shedir'^, in the breast, is the up- 
permost star of the five bright ones, and is 5° S. E. of Caph : 
the other three bright ones, forming the chair, are easily dis- 
tinguished, as they meet the eye at the first glance. 

There is an importance attached to the position of Caph 
that concerns the mariner and the surveyor. It is used, in 
connexion with observations on the Polar Star, for deteiTni- 
ning the latitude of places, and for discovering the magnetic 
variation of the needle. 

It is generally supposedthat the North Polar Star, so called, is the real immove 
able pole of the heavens ; but this is a mistake. It is so near the true pole that 
it has obtained the appellation oi'the North Polar Star ; but it is, in reality, more 
tlian a degree and a half distant from il, and revolves about the true pole every 
24 hours, in a circle whose radius is 1° 35'. It will consequently, in 2-4 hours, be 
twice on the meridian, once aiare, and once beloic the pole; and twice at its 
greatest elongation E. and \V. [See North Polar Star.] 

The Polar Star not being exactly in the N. pole of the 
heavens, but one degree and 35 minutes on that side of it 
which is towards Caph, the position of the latter becomes 
important as it always shows on which side of the tj^ue pole 
tlie polar star is. 

There is another important fact in relation to the position 

* Shedir, from El Seder, the Seder tree ; a name given to this constellation by 
Ulugh Beigh. 

When may it be seen from this latitude? \\licn is it on our meridian) How is the 
motion of the stars aftecteil as they approach the poles ? How many principal stars in 
tiiis constellation, and what is their appearance? De.scrilie the situation of Caph. 
VThan is Coph on the meridian? What is the relative position of ShedirJ Why is th« 
»<»sitlOn of Caph important? 



40 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. NO? 

of this Star. It is equidistant from the pole, and exactly op- 
posite another remarkable star in the square of the Great 
Bear, on the other side of the pole. [See MegrezJ] It also 
serves to mark a spot in the starry heavens, rendered memo- 
rable as being the place of a lost star. Two hundred and fifty 
years ago, a bright star shone 5° N.. N. E. of Caph where 
,now is a dark void ! 

On the 8th of November, 1572, Tycho Brahe and Corne- 
lius Gemma saw a star in the constellation of Cassiopeia, 
which became, all at once, so brilliant, that it surpassed the 
splendour of the brightest planets, and riiight be seen even at 
noonday ! Gradually, this great brilliancy diminished, until 
the 15lh of March, 1573, when, without moving from its place, 
it became utterly extinct. 

Its colour, during this time, exhibited all the phenomena 
of a prodigious flame — first it was of a dazzling white, then 
of a reddish yellow, and lastly of an ashy paleness, in which 
its light expired. It is impossible, says Mrs. Somerville, to 
imagine any thing more tremendous than a conflagration thai 
could be visible at such a distance. It was seen for sixteen 
months. 

Some astronomers imagined that it would reappear again 
after 150 years; but it has never been discovered since. 
This phenomenon alarmed all the astronomers of the age, 
who beheld it; and many of them wrote dissertations con 
cerning it. 

Rev. Professor Vince, one of the most learned and pious 
astronomers of the age, has this remark: — "The disappear- 
ance of some stars may be the destruction of that system at 
the time appointed by the Deity for the probation of its in- 
habitants ; and the appearance of new stars may be the for 
mation of new systems for new races of beings then called 
into existence to adore the works of their Creator." 

Thus, we may conceive the Deity to have been employed from all efernify, 
and ihus he may continue to be employed for endless ages; forming new 8ys- 
leiuis of beings to adore him; and transplanting beings already formed into liap- 
pier regions, who will continue to rise higher and higher in their enjoymentia, 
aiid go on to contemplate systctn after system through the boundless uu'iveriie. 

La Place says :— " As to those stars which suddrnly shine forth with a very 
Tivid light, and then immediately disappear, it is extremely probable that great 
conflagrations, produced by extraordinary causes, take place on their surface. 
This conjecture, continues he, is confirmed by their change of colour, which is 
analogous to that presented to us on the earth 'by those bodies which are set on 
fire and then gradually extinguished." 

The late eminent Dr. Good also observes that— Worlds and systems of world* 



What memorable spot doe."; Cajih sen-e to mark out? Doscrilie the phrnomenon o< 
the lost .star. V^'hat does Mr.s. Somerville .<;iy of it? How Innp was It seen? H:>.« any 
thing been discovered of it since? HfW did this plicnonifnoii aflbot tlie :istronon>er» 
of the age? What does Vince sav of the disapi>earcince of some stjirs. nod the ne^ ap 
pearance of others? Repeat the observalinns ofDr Good upon the ^tbifct qfnao ti*r» 
wppearing and disappcarins. 



MAP VI. I CEPHEUS. 41 

»-e not only perpetually creating, but also perpetually disappearing. It is an 
fatraordinary fact, that within the period of the last century, not less than thit 
£en stars, in different constellations, seem to have totally perished, and ten new 
ones to have been created. In many instances it is unquestionable, that the stara 
themselves, the supposed habitation of other kinds or orders of intelligent be- 
ings, together with the different planets by which it is probable they were sur 
rounded, have utterly vanished, and the spots which they occupied in t' e hea- 
vens, have become blanks ! Wliat has befallen other systems, will as.suredly 
befall our own. Of the time and the manner Ave know nothing, but the fact ia 
incontrovertible ; it is foretold by revelation ; it is inscribed in the heavens ; it 
is felt through the earth. Such is the awful and daily text ; what then ought to 
be the comments 

The great and good Beza, falhng in with the superstition of his age, attempted 
to prove that this was a comet, or the same luminous appearance which conduct- 
ed the magi, or wise men of tiie East, into Palestine, at the birth of our Saviour 
and that it now appeared to announce his second coming ! 

About 6° N. W. of Caph, the telescope reveals to us a 
grand nebula of small stars, apparently compressed into one 
mass, or single blaze of light, with a great number of loose 
stars surrounding it. 

History. — Cassiopeia was wife of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia, and mother of An- 
ilromeda. She was a queen of matcliless beauty, and seemed to be sensible of it; 
for she even boasted herself fairer tlian Juno, "the sister of Jupiter, or the Nerei- 
des — a name given to the sea nymphs. This so provoked the ladies of the sea that 
they complained to Neptune of the insult, who sent a frightful monster to ravage 
her coast, as a punishment for her insolence. But the anger of Neptime and the 
jealousy of the nymphs were not thus appeased. They demanded, and it was 
'finally ordained that Cassiopeia sliould chain her daughter Andromeda, whom 
she tenderly loved, to a desert rock on the beach, and leave her exposed to the 
fury of this'monsier. She was thus left, and the monster approached ; but just 
as he was going to devour her, Perseus killed him. 
"The saviour youth the royal pair confess, 
And with heav'd hands, their daughter's Ijridegroom bless." 

Eicsden's Ovid. 



CEPHEUS 

Cepheus is represented on the map as a king, in his royal 
robe, with a sceptre in his left hand, and a crown of stars upon 
his head. He stands in a commanding posture, with his left 
foot over the pole, and his sceptre extended towards Cassio- 
peia, as if for favour and defence of the queen. 

— "Cepheus illumes 

The neighbouring heavens ; still faitlilul to his queen, 
With thirty-five faint luminaries mark'd." 

This constellation is about 25° N. W. of Cassiopeia, near 
the 2d coil of Draco, and is on the meridian at 8 o'clock the 
3d of November; but it will linger near it for many days. 
Like Cassiopeia, it may be seen at all hours of the night, 
kvhen the sky is clear, for to us it never sets. 

'By reference to the lines on the map, which all meet in the pole, it will be evi- 
lent that a star, near the pole, moves over a much less space in one hour, ihaa 

Thero. is a remarkable nebula in this constellation ; describe its ."Huation and ap- 
►earance. How is Cepheus represented? What is his posture' "NNI^tv -s ilj too 
tellation situated? 

4* 



43 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. J NCV. 

one at the equinoctial ; and generally, the nearer the pole, the narraicer the 
6i>ace, and the slower the motion. 

The stars that are so near the pole may be better described by ihair polar 
distance, than by their declination. By polar distance, is meanlr— ibe dislanee 
from the pole ; and is what the dechnatioa wants of 90^- 

In this constellation there are 35 stars visible to the naked 
eye ; of these, there glitters on the left shoulder, a star of the 
3d magnitude, called Alderamin, which with tw^o others of 
the same brightness, 8° and 12° apart, form a slightly-curved 
line towards the N. E. The last, whose letter name is Gam- 
ma, is in the right knee, 19° N. of Caph, in Cassiopeia. The 
middle one in the line, is Alphirk, in the girdle. This star is 
one third of the distance from Alderamin to the pole, and 
nearly in the same right line. 

It cannot be too well understood that the bearings, or direction of one star fro» 
another, as given in this treatise, are strictly ap'plicable only when the former 
one is on. or near the meridian. The bearings given, in many cases, are not the 
least ajiproximations to what appears to be their relative position ; and in .some, 
if relied upon, will lead to errours. For example :— It is said, in the precerliny 
paragraph, that GamuiEi, in Cepheus, bears 19^ N. of Caph in Cassiopeia. This 
Is true, when Caph is on the meridian, but at this very moment, while the author 
IS writing this line, Gaumia appears to be 19° due tcest of Caph ; and six months 
hence, will appear to be the same distance east of it. The reason is obvious; 
the circle which Cepheus appears to describe about the pole, is within that ol 
Cassiopeia, and consequently when on the east side of the pole, will be within, 
or Ae/M-^en Cassiopeia and the pole — that is, west of Cassiopeia. And tor the 
same reason, when Cepheus is on the west side of the pole, it is between that 
and Cassiopeia, or east of it. 

Let it also be remembered, that m speaking of thepo/e. which we shall have 
frequent occasion to do. in the course of this work, the North Polar Star, or an 
imaginary point very near it. is always meant ; and not as some will vaguely ap- 
prehend, a point in the horizon, directly N. of u.s. The true pole of the heavens 
IS always elevated just as many degrees ahore our liorizon. as we are north ot 
the Equator. If we live in 4'2° N. latitude, the N. nole will be 42° above our 
horizon. (See North Polar Star.) 

There are also two smaller stars about 9° E. of Alderamm 
and Alphirk, with which they . form a square ; Alderamin 
being the upper, and Alphirk the lower one on the "VV. 8° 
apart. In the centre of this square there is a bright dot, or 
semi-visible star. 

The head of Ceplieu* is in the Milkv-Way, and may he 
knoAvn by three stars of the 4th magnitude in the crown, 
which form a small acute triangle, about 9^ to the riijht of 
Alderamin. The mean polar distance of the constellation is 
25°, while that of Alderamin is 28<' 10'. The right ascension 
of the former is 338° ; consequently, it is 22° E. of the equi- 
noctial colure. 

The student will understand that right ascension is reckoned on the equinoc- 
tial, trom the first point of Aries, E., quite round to the same point again, -vhic^ 

How many, and what n re the principal st,'irs In it? Describe the last star \n th* 
curve. Describe the miditle one. What four stars form a square in this constell;iiion J 
Where is the he.-u1 of Cepheu'. ;mil how may it be known? What i.s the mean jiolar 
dlsuince of this constellation? How far, and which way Is it fro"! the equinocda. 
colure 1 



MAP II. ] AKIES, 43 

Kt 860^. New 338°, measured from the same pdint, •will reach the same poini 
au-ain. wifhin 22° ; which is the difference between 360° and 338°. This rule. 
WJil apply to any other case 

History. — This constellation immortalizes the name of the king of Ethiopia. 
Tlie name ofhis queen was Cassiopeia. They were the parents of Andromeda, who 
was betrothed to Perseus. Cepheus was one of the Argonauts who accompanied 
Jason on his perilous expedition in quest of the golden lieece. ?\e\vton supposes 
that it was owing to this circumstance that he was placed in the heavens ; and 
that not only this, but all the ancient constellations, relaLe to the Argonautic ex- 
pedition, or to persons some way connected ^vith it. Thus, he observes that as 
Musseus, one of the Argonauts, was the first Greek who made a celestial sphere, 
he would naturally delineate on it those figures which had some reference to 
tlie expedition. Accordingly, we have on our globes to this day, the Golden Ram, 
the ensign of the ship in which Phryxus fled" to Colchis, the scene of the Argo- 
nautic achievements. We have also the Bull with brazen hoofs, tamed. by Ja- 
Bon ; the Twins. Castor and PoUux, tn-o sailors, with their mother Leda. in the 
form of a Stcan. and Argo, the ship itself; the watchful DragonHydrdi. with the 
Cup of Medea, and a raven upon its carcass, as an emblem of death; also Chi- 
ron, the Master of Jason, with his Altar, and Sacrifice ; Hercules, the Argonaut, 
with his club, his dart, and vulture, with the dragon, crab and lion v^iich he slew ; 
and Orpheus, one of the company, with his harp. AU. these, says Newton, refer 
to the Argonauts. 

Again ; we have Orion, the son of Neptune, or, as some say, the grandson of 
Minos, with his dogs, and hare, and river, and scorpion. We have the story of 
Perseus in the consteDation of that name, as well as in Cassiopeia, Cepheus. An- 
dromeda and Cetus; that of Cahsto and her son Areas, in Ursa Major ; that ol 
Icareus and his daughter Erigone, in Bootes and Virgo. Ursa Minor relates to 
one of the nurses of Jupiter ; Auriga, to Erichthonius ; Ophiuchus, to Phorbas ; 
Sagittarius, to Crolus, the son of one of the Muses; Capricorn, to Pan, and 
Aquarius to Ganymede. We have also Ariadne's crown. Bellerophon's horse, 
Neptune's dolphin. Ganymede's eagle, Jupiter's goat with her kids, the asses of 
Bacc/i'.is. the fishes of Venus and Cupid, with their parent, the southern fish. 
These, according to Deltoton. comprise the Grecian constellations mentioned by 
the poet Aratusf and all relate, as Newton supnoses, remotely or immediately, 
to the Argonauts. 

It may be remarked, however, that while none of these figures refer to any 
transactions of a later date than the Argonautic expedition, yet the great disa- 
greement which appears in the mythological account of them, proves that their 
invention must have been of greater antiquity than that event, and that these 
constellations were received for some time among the Greeks, before their poet^ 
referred to them in describing the particulars of that memorable exhibition. 



CHAPTER II. 

DIRECTIONS rOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON 
THE MERIDIAN IN DECEMBER. 

ARIES^. 
Tf'c; Ram. — Twenty-two centuries ago, as Hipparchus d 
fomis us, this constellation occupied the first sign in the 
ecliptic, commencing at the vernal equinox. But as the con- 
stellations gain about .5( " on the equinox, at ever)' revolution 
of the heavens, they have advanced in the ecliptic nearly 31° 
beyond it, or more than a whole sign : so that the Fishes now 



s the position of Aries in the ecliptic. 22 centuries ago? 



44 PICTURE DF THE HEAVEN3. | DEO. 

occupy the same placo vj the Zodiac, that Aries did, in the 
tirne of Hipparchus ; wb) e the constellation Aries is now in 
the sign Taurus, Taurus in Gemini, and Gemini in Cancer, 
and so on. 

Aries is therefore nofv the second constellation in t'le 
Zodiac. It is situated next east of Pisces, and is midway 
between the Triangles r.nd the Fly on the N. and the head 
of Cetus on the S. It contains 66 stars, of which, one is of 
the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4th magnitudes. 

"First, from the east, the Ram conducts the year ; 
Whom Ptolemy with twice nine stars adorns, 
Of which two only claim the second rank ; 
The rest, when Cynthia fills the sign, are lost." 

It is readily distinguished by means of two bright stars in 
the head, about 4° apart, the brightest being the most north- 
easterly of the two. The first, which is of ihe 2d magnitude, 
situated in the right horn, is called Alpha Arietis, or simply 
Arietis ; the other, which is of the 3d magnitude, lying near 
the left horn, is called Sheratan, and may be known by an- 
other star of the 4th magnitude, in the ear, 1^^ S. of it, called 
jMesarthim, which is the Jirst star in this constellation. 
"'- Arietis and Sheratan, are one instance out of many, whera 
stars of more than ordinary brightness are seen together in 
pairs, as in the Twins, the Little Dog, &c., the brightest star 
being commonly on the east. 

The position of Arietis affords important facilities to nau- 
tical science. Difficult to comprehend as it may be, to the 
unlearned, the skilful navigator who should be lost upon an 
unknown sea, or in the midst of the Pacific ocean, could, by 
measuring the distance between Arietis and the Moon, which 
often passes near it, determine at once not only the spot he 
was in, but his true course and distance to any known meri- 
dian or harbour on the earth. 

Lying along the moon's path, there are nine conspicuous 
stars that are used by nautical men for determining their Ion 
gitud i at sea, thence called nautical stars. 

These stars are Arietis, Aldebaran, Pollux, Begnlus, 
Spica Virginis, Antares, Altair, Fomalhaut, and Markab. 

The true places of these stars, for every day in the year, are given in the Nau- 
tical Almanac, a valuable work published annually by the English '• Board ofAd- 
r liraity," to guide mariners in navigating the seas, "they are usually published 
two or three years in advance, for the benefit of long voyages. 

That a man, says Sir John Herschel, by merely measunng the moon's appar 
rent distance from a star, with a little portable instrument held in his hand, and 

What is Its present position? How is it now situated with respect to the surround- 
ing constellations? AV hat are the number ami magnitnrle of its stars? How Is this 
constellation readily distinguished? Describe the two bright stars in the head. Foi 
what purposes is the position of .^ome of the stars in Arietis important? How many 
stars are .used for determining longitude at sea, and where are they situated? By whaX 
Keooral name are they called ? Enumerate them 



MAP II-I ARIES. 4»» 

applied to his eye, even with so unstable a footing as the deck of a ship, shajsay 
positively within five miles, where he is, on a boundless ocean, cannot L'lt appear 
to persons ignorant of physical astronomy, an approach to the miraculous. And 
yet, says he, the alternatives of life and death, wealth and ruin, are daily and 
hourly staked, with perfect confidence, on these marvellous computations. 

Capt. Basil Hall, of the royal navy, relates that he had sailed from San Bias on 
the west coast of Mexico, and after a voyage of 8000 miles occupying eighty-nine 
days, arrived otf Rio Janeiro, having in this interval passed through the Pacific 
ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic without making any 
land or seeing a single sail on the voyage. Arrived within a few days' sail of 
Rio, he took a set of lunar observations, to ascertain his true position, and the 
bearing of the hai'bour, and shaped his course accordingly. " I hove to," says 
he, " at 4 in the moi-ning, till the day should break, and then bore up ; for 
although it was hazy, we could see before us a couple of miles or so. About 8 
o'clock it became so foggy that I did not like to stand in farther, and was just 
bringing the ship to the wind again before sending the people to breakfast, when 
it suddenly cleared off, and I had the satisfaction of seeing the great Sugar-loal 
rock, which stands on one side of the harbour's mouth, so nearly right ahead 
that we had not to alter our course above a point in order to hit the entrance of 
Rio. This was the first land we had seen for three months, after crossing so 
many seas, and being set backwards and forwards by innumerable currents and 
foul winds.' 

Arietis comes to the meridian about 12 minutes after She- 
ratan, on the 5th December, near where the sun does in mid- 
summer. Arietis, also, is nearly on the same meridian with 
Almaach, in the foot of Andromeda. 19° N. of it, and culmi- 
nates only four minutes after it. The otner stars in this con- 
stellation are quite small, constituting that loose cluster which 
we see between the Fly on the north, and the head of Cetus 
on the south. 

When Arietis is on the meridian, Andromeda and Cassio- 
peia are a little past the meridian, nearly over head, and Per- 
seus with the head of Medusa, is as far to the east of it. 
Taurus and Auriga are two or three hours lower down; 
Orion appears in the S. E.. and the Whale on the meridian, 
just below Aries, while Pegasus and the Swan are seen halt 
wp.y over in the west. 

The manner in which the ancients divided the Zodiac into 12 equal parts, wa3 
both simple and ingenious. Having no instrument that would measure time 
exactly, "They took a vessel, with a small hole in the bottom, and having filled 
it with water, suffered the same to distil, drop by drop, into another vessel set 
beneath to receive it, beginning at the moment when some star rose, and con- 
tinuing till it rose the next following iiight, when it would have performed one 
complete revolution in the heavens. The water falling do^vn into the receiver 
they divided into 12 equal parts ; and having twelve other small vessels in readi- 
ness, each of them capable of containing one part, they again poured all the wa- 
ter into the upper vessel, and observing the rising of some star in the Zodiac, 
nt the same time suffered the water to drop into one of the small vessels. And 
as soon as it was full they removed it, and set an empty one in its place. Just 
as each vessel was full, they took notice what star of the Zodiac rose at that 
time, and thus continued the process through the year, until the 12 vessels were 
fiUe;'" 
• Thus the Zodiac was divided into 12 equal portions, corresponding to the 12 



WTien does Arietis pass the meridian? What other brilliant star is on the meridian 
nearly at the same time? When Aries is on the meridian, what other constellations 
are immediately in view? Describe the manner in ichichthe ancients divided th» 
Zodiac. At what point qfthe Zodiac did this division cmtwience 7 



46 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | DEC. 

months of the year, commencing at the vernal equinox. Each of these portions 
served as the visible representative or sig7i ottlie month it appeared iii. 

All those stars in the Zodiac which were observed to rise while the first vessel 
was filling, were constellated and included in the first sign, and called Aries, an 
animal held in great esteem by the shepherds of Chaldea. All those stars in the 
Zodiac which rose while the second vessel was filling, were constellated and 
included in the second sign, which for a sunilar reason, was denominated Tau- 
rus ; and all those stars which were observed to rise while the third vessel waa 
fiUing, were constellated in the third sign, and called Gemini, in allusion to the 
ttcin season of the flocks. 

Thus each sign of 30° in the Zodiac, received a distinctive appellation, accord- 
ing to the fancy or superstition of the inventors; which names nave ever since 
been retained, although the constellations themselves have since left their nom- 
inal signs more than 30° behind. The sign Aries, therelbre, included all the stara 
embraced in th,e first 30° of the Zodiac, and no more. The sign Taurus, in hke 
manner, included all those .stars embraced in the next 30° of the Zodiac, or those 
between 30° and 60°, and so of the rest. Of those who imagine that the twelve 
constellations of the Zodiac refer to the twelve tribes of Israel, some ascribe 
Arias to the tribe of Simeon, and others, to Gad. 

History. — According to fable, this is the ram which bore the golden fleece, 
and carried Phryxus and his sister llelle through the air, when they fled to Col- 
chis from the persecution of their stepmother Ino. The rapid motion of the ram 
in his^aerial flight high above the earth, caused the head of Helle to turn with 
giddiness, and she fell from his back into that part of the sea which was after- 
wards called Hellespont, in commemoration of the dreadful event. Phryxus 
arrived safe at Colchis, but was soon murdered by his own father-in-law. ^Etes, 
who envied him his golden treasure. This gave rise to the celebrated Argo- 
nautic expedition under the command of Jason, for the recovery of the golden 
fleece. 

Nephele, queen of Thebes, having provided her children. Phryxus and Helle, 
with this not)le animal, upon which they might elude the wicked designs of 
those who sought their life, was afterwards changed into a cloud, as a rew^ard 
for her parental solicitude ; and the Greeks ever after called the clouds by her 
name. But the most probable account of the origin of this constellation is given 
in a preceding paragraph, where it is' referred to the flocks of the Chaldean 
shepherds. 

During the campaigns of the French army in Egypt, General Dessaix discov 
ered among the ruins at Dendera, near the banks of the Nile, the great teniple 
supposed by some to have been dedicated to Isis, the female deity of the Egyp- 
tians, who believed that the rising of the Nile was occasioned by the tears which 
she continually shed for the loss of her brother Osiris, who was murdered by 
Typhon. 

Others suppose this edifice was erected for astronomical purposes, from »he 
circumstance that two Zodiacs were discovered, drawn upon the ceiling, on <)j>-' 
posite sides. On both these Zodiacs the equinoctial points are in Leo, and not 
in Aries; from which it has been concluded, by those who pertinaciously en- 
deavour to array the arguments of science against the chronology of the Bible 
and the validity of the Mosaic account, that these Zodiacs were constructed when 
the sun entered the sign Leo, which must have been 0720 years ago. or 4000 years 
before the inspired account of the creation. The infidelWriters in France and 
Germanj', make it 10.000 years before. But we may "set to our seal," that what- 
ever is true in fact and correct in inierence on this subject will be found, in the 
end, not only consistent with the Mosaic record, but with the common meaning 
of the expressions it uses. 

The discovery of Champollion has put this question for ever at rest ; and M. 
Latronne, a most learned antiquary, has very satisfactorily demonstrated that 
these Egyptian Zodiacs are merely the horoscopes of distinguished personages, 
or the precise situation of the heavenly bodies in the Zodiac at their nativity. 
The idea that such was their purpose and origin, first suggested itself to this 
gentleman on finding, in the box of a mummy, a similar Zodiac, with such 



What did each ofthete- portions of the Zodiac s/;i-ve 7 What stars mere placed in Iht. 
firat sign 1 What name teas given to the constellation thvsfonned 7 What stars irera 
placed in the second sign 7 What icas the second consteHalion called 7 What stars vert 
placed in the third sign, and what loat it called 7 Are tht smnc names still rezainedl 
What does this precession, or going J- rward qfllie stars amount to in a year J 



MAI' II.J CETUS. 47 

Bjscriptions and characters as determined it to be the horoscope of the deceased 
persson. 

Of all the discoveries of the antiquary among the relics of ancient Greece, the 
ruins vi Palmyra, the gigantic pyramids of Egypt, tlie temples of their gods, or 
the sepulchres of their kings, scarcely one so aroused and riveted the curiosity 
of the learned, as did the discovery of Chauipollion the younger, which deciphera 
the hieroglyphics of ancient Egj'pt. 

The potency of this invaluable discovery has already been signally manifested 
in settling a tbrmidable controversy between the champions of infidelity and 
Ihose who maintain the Bible account of the creation. It has been shown t>at 
the constellation Pisces, since the days of Hipparchus, has come, by reason of 
the annual precession, to occupy the same apparent place in the heavens that 
Aries did two thousand years ago. The Christian astronomer and the hifidel are 
perfectly agreed as to the fact, and the amount of this yearly gain in the appa- 
rent molion of the stars. They both believe, and both can demonstrate, that the 
fixed stars have gone forward in the Zodiac, about 50" of a degree in every revo- 
lution of the heavens since the creation ; so that were the world to hght upon any 
authentic inscription or record of past ages, which should give the true position 
or longitude of any particular star at that time, it would be easy to fix an unques- 
tionable date to such a record. Accordingly, when the famous '"Egyptian Zo- 
diacs," which were sculptured on the waOs of the temple at Dendera, were 
brought away en mass':, and exhibited in the LomTe at Paris, they enkindled a 
more exciting interest in the thousands who saw them, than ever did the en- 
trance of Napoleon. ''Educated men of every order, and those who had the 
vanity to think themselves such," says the commentator of ChampoUion, "rush- 
ed to behold the Zodiacs. These Zodiacs were immediately pubhshed and com- 
mented upon, with more or less good faith and decorum. Science struck oui 
into systems very bold ; and the spirit of infidelity, seizing upon the discovery; 
flattered itself with the hope of di'awing from thence new support. It was unjus- 
tifiably taken for granted, that the ruins of Egypt furnished astronomy with mon- 
uments, containing observations that exhibited the state of the heavens in the 
most remote periods. Starting with this asstunption, a pretence was made ol 
demonstrating, by means of calculations received as infallible, that the celestial 
appearances assigned to these monuments extended back from forty-five to six- 
ty-five centuries^ that the Zodiacal system to which they must belong, dated 
back fii'reen thousand years, and must reach far beyond the limits assigned by 
Moses to the existence of the world." Among those who stood forth more or 
less bold as the adversaries of revelation, the most prominent was M. Dupuis, 
the famous author of £<' origine de tons les Cultes. 

The infidelity of Dupuis was spread about by means of pamphlets, and the ad- 
vocates of the Mosaic account were scandahzed '■ until a new Alexander arose 
to cut. the Gordian knot, which men had vainly sought to untie. This was Cham- 
poUion the younger, armed with his discovery," The hieroglyphics now speak 
a language that all can understand, and no one gainsay. " The Egyptian Zodiacs, 
then," says Latronne, "relate in no respect to astronomy, but to the idle phan- 
tasies of judicial astrology, as connected with the destinies of the emperors who 
made or completed them." 



CETUS. 

The Whale. — As the whale is the chief monster of the 
deep, and the largest of the aquatic race, so is it the largest 
iODstellation in the heavens. It occupies a space of 50° in 
ength, E. and W., with a mean breadth of 20° from N. to S. 
t is situated below Aries and the Triangles, with a mean 
ieclination of 12° S. It is represented as making its way to 
lie E., with its body below, and its head elevated above the 
equinoctial : and is six weeks in passing the meridian. Its 

AV'nat is the comparative size of the ^Vhale? What Is Its extenf Where is Ii slt» 
teJ ' How long is the Whale in passing the meridian? 



48 PICTTIRE OF THE HEAVENS. [dEO. 

tajl comes to the meridian on the 10th of November, and its 
aead leaves it on the 22d of December. 

This constellation contains 97 stars ; two of ♦he 2d mag- 
nitude, seven of the 3d, and thirteen of the 4th. The head 
of Cetus may be readily distinguished, about 20° S. E. of 
Aries, by means of five remarkable stars, 4° and 5° apart, 
and so situated as to form a regular pentagon. The brightest 
of these is Menkar, of the 2d magnitude, in the nose of the 
Whale. It occupies the S. E. angle of the figure. It is 3^° 
N. of the equinoctial, and 15° E. of El Rischa in the bight of 
the cord between the Two Fishes. It is directly 37° S. of 
Algol, and nearly in the same direction from the Fly. It 
makes an equilateral triangle with Arietis and the Pleiades, 
being distant from each about 23° S. , and may otherwise be 
known by a star of the 3d magnitude in the mouth, 3° W. of 
it, called Ganwia, placed in the south middle angle of the 
pentagon. 

Nu is a star of the 4th magnitude, 4° N. V/. of Gamma, 
and these two constitute the S. W. side of the pentagon in 
the head of the Whale, and the N. E. side of a similar oblong 
figure in the neck. 

Three degrees S. S. W. of Gamma, is another star of the 3d 
magnitude in the lower jaw, marked Delta, constituting the 
E. side of the oblong pentagon ; and 6° S. W. of this, is a 
noted star in the neck of the Whale, called Mira, or the 
"wonderful star of 1596," which forms the S. E. side. This 
variable star was first noticed as such by Fabricius, on the 
13th of August, 1596. It changes from a star of the 2d mag- 
nitude so as to become mvisible once in 234 days, or about 
7 times in 6 years. Herschel makes its period 331 days, 10 
hours, and 19 minutes ; while Hevelius assures us that it once 
disappeared for 4 years ; so that its true period, perhaps, has 
not been satisfactorily determined. 

The whole number of stars ascertained to be variable, amounts to only 15; 
While those which are suspected to be variable, amount to 37. 

Mira is 7° S. S. E. of El Rischa, in the bend or knot of the 
riband which connects the Two Fishes. Ten degrees S. of 
Mira, are 4 small stars, in the breast and paws, about 3° apart, 
which form a square, the brightest being on the E. Ten de 

When does it approach, and when does it leave the meridian? WTiat Is the whole 
number of stars in Cetus? "What is the masrnitude of the principal ones? How 
may the head of Cetus be distinguished? "What are the name and position of the 
brightest? How far is it from the equinoctial, and the princifial suir in the Fishes I 
What is its direction from Algol and the Fly? With what stars does it form an equi- 
lateral triangle ? How may it otherwise he known? Describe the position ofNu, 
Describe the situation of Delta and Mira. When and by whom was this star diicover- 
ed to be variable? "What are the extent and i)eriod of this variation? How long doei 
Herschel make it? What does Hevelius say of it? Has the tnie perio of Mira been 
Batisfactorily determined? How far, and which way is Mira from Alpha, in tha knot 
«f the riband? "What four small st^is do vou observe 10^ s. of Mira? 



MAP II.J PERSEUS, ET CAPUT MEDUSiE. 49 

grees S. W. of Mira, is a star of the 3d magnitude n t}ie 
heart, called Baten Kaitos, which makes a scalene triangle 
wilh two other stars of the same magnitude 7° and 10" W. of 
it ; also, an equilateral triangle with Mira and the eastern- 
most one in the square. 

A great number of geometrical figures may be formed from the stars in this, 
»nd in most of the other constellations, merely by reference to the maps ; but 
It is better that the student should exercise his own ingenuity in this way with 
reference to the stars themselves, for when once he has constructed a group 
Into any letter or figure of his own invention, he never will forget it. 

The teacher should therefore require his class to commit to writing the result 
of their own observations upon the relative position, magnitude and figures of 
the principal stars in each constellation. One evening's exercise in this way 
will disclose to the student a surprising multitude of crosses, squares, triangles, 
arcs and letters, by which he will be better able to identify and remember them, 
than by any instructions that could be given. 

For 'example : Mira and Baten in the Whale, about 10° apart, make up the 
S. E. or shoner side of an in-egular square, with El Rischa in the node of the 
riband, and another star in the Whale as far to the right of Baten, as El Rischa 
is above Mira. Again, 

There are three stars of equal magnitude, forming a straight line W. of Baten; 
from which, to the middle star is 10^, thence to the W. one 12i; and 8^ or 9° S. 
of this line, in a triangular direction, is a bright star of the second magnitude in 
tlie coil of the tail, called Diphda. 

In a southerly direction, 2.5° below Diphda, is Alpha in the head of the Phe- 
nix, and about the same distance S. W. is Fomalhaut, in the mouth of the 
Southern Fish, forming together a large triangle, with Diphda in the vertex or 
lop of it 

That fine cluster of small stars S. of the little square in the Whale, constitutes 
a part of a new constell^ition called the Chymical Furnace. The two stars N. E. 
and the three to the southward of the httle square, are in the river Eridanus. 

History. — This constellation is of ivery early antiquity ; though most writers 
consider it the famous sea monster sent by Neptune to devour Andromeda be- 
cause her mother Cassiopeia had boasted herself fairer than Juno or the Sea 
Nymphs ; but slain by Perseus and placed among the stars in honour of hia 
ac'aievemciit. 

"The winged hero now descends, now soars. 
And at his pleasure the vast monster gores! 
Deep in his back, swift stooping from above, 
His crooked sabre to the hilt he drove." 
It is quite certain, however, that this constellation had a place in the heavens 
long piior to the time of Perseus. When the equinoctial sun in Aries, which ij 
right over the heaa of Cetus, opened the year, it was denominated the Preserve 
rr Deliverer, by the idolaters of the East. On this account, according to Pausa- 
r'as, tlie sun was worshipped, at Eleusis, imder the name of the Preserver oi 
Saviour 

"With gills pulmonic breathes the enormous whale, 
And spouts aquatic columns to the gale ; 
Sports on the shining wave at noontide hours. 
Arid shifting rainbows crest the rising showers." — Darwin. 



PERSEUS, ET CAPUT MEDUSA. 

Perseus is represented with a sword in his right hand, Iht 
head of Medusa in his left, and wings at his feet. It is siti>- 

How is Baten Kaitos situated? What is naid of the VGrious fis-ures that different 
oonstellations exhibit ? Give an example. Ofiohat constellation does that fine 'cluster 
-' stars of the little square in tht Whale, constitute a part ? How is the constellatjoo 

ireeus reoreaented ? 

a 



50 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | DEC 

ated directly N. of the Pleiades and the Fly, between Andn»- 
meda od the W. and Auriga on the E. Its mean declination 
is 49° N. It is on the meridian the 24th of December. It 
contains, mcluding the head of Medusa, 59 stars, two of which 
are of the 2d magnitude, and four of the 3d. According to 
Eudosia, it contains, including the head of Medusa, 67 stars. 

"Perseus next, 

Brandishes high in heaven his sword of llaine, 
And holds triumphant the dire Gorgon's head, 
Flashing with fiery snakes ! the stars he counts 
Are sixty-seven ; and two of these he boasts, 
Nobly refulgent in the second rank — 
One in his vest, one in Medusa's head." 

The Head of Medusa is not a separate constellation, but 
forms a part of Perseus. 

It is represented as the trunkless head of a frightful Gor- 
gon, crowned with coiling snakes, instead of hair, which th*> 
victor Perseus holds in his hand. 

There are, m all, about a dozen stars in the Head of Me 
dusa ; three of the 4th magnitude, and one, varying alter 
nately from the 2d to the 4th magnitude. This remarkable 
star is called Algol. It is situated 12° E. of Alraaach, in the 
foot of Andromeda, and may be known by means of three 
stars of the 4th magnitude, lying a few degrees S. W. of it, 
and forming a small triangle. 

It is on the meridian the 21st of December; but as it 
continues above the horizon 18 hours out of 24, it may be seen 
every evening from September to May. It varies from the 2d 
to the 4th magnitude in about 3^ hours, and back again in the 
same time ; after which it remains steadily brilliant for 2\ 
days, when the same changes recur. 

The periodical variation of Algol was determined in 17S3, 
by John Goodricke of York (Eng.) to be 2 days, 20 hours, 48 
minutes, and 56 seconds. 

Dr. Herschel attributes the variable appearance of Algol to 
spots upon its surface, and thinks it has a motion on its axis 
similar to that of the sun. He also observes, of variable stars 
generally : — " The rotary motion of stars upon their axes is a 
capital feature in their resemblance to the sun. It appears to 
me now, that we cannot refuse to admit such a motiun, and 
that indeed it may be as evidently proved as the diurnal mo- 

Where is it situated? What is its declination, and when Is it on the meriilian? What 
Is the whole number of its stars ? "What is the magnitude of its principal ones? Oi 
what constellation does Cainit Mcdusre form a par*? How is it represented? What 
is the whole numner of its stars? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? What 
are the name and position of the variable star in this constellation? When is It on the 
/neridian, and how long may it be seen ? In what time does it var>' from the aJ tc the 
*th magnitude, and back again ? How long is It .steadily brilliant ? When and bj- whom 
was its periodical variation detennined? What is Its exact period? To what does Dr 
Herschel attribute its variable appearance? 



MAP III. ] PERSEUS, ET CAPUT xMiDUS^. 51 

tion of the earttt Dark spots, or large portions of the surface 
Ifcbs luminous than the rest, turned alternately in certain di 
lections either towards, or from us, will account for all the 
phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the stars, so 
satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look out for any other 
cause." 

It is said, that the famous astronomer Lalande, who died at Paris in 1307. waa 
wont to remain wliole uiglits, in his old age, upon tlie Pont Neuf, to exhibit to 
•he curious the variations in the brilliancy of the star Algol. 

Nine degrees E. by N. from Algol, is the bright star Alge- 
nih^ of the 2d magnitude, in the side of Perseus, which with 
Almaack, makes a perfect right angle at Algol, with the open 
part towards Cassiopeia. By means of this strikingly perfect 
figure, the three stars last mentioned may always be recog- 
nised without the possibility of mistaking them. Algenib 
may otherwise be readily distinguished by its being the 
brightest and middle one of a number of stars lying four and 
five degrees apart, in a large semicircular torm, curving to 
wards Ursa Major. 

Algenib comes to the meridian on the 21st December, 15 
minutes after Algol, at which time the latter is almost di- 
rectly over head. When these two stars are on the meridian 
that beautiful cluster, the Pleiades, is about half an hour E. 
of it ; and in short, the most brilliant portion of the. starry 
neavens is then visible in the eastern hemisphere. The 
^Jories of the scene are unspeakably magnificent; and the 
student who fixes his eye upon those lofty mansions of being, 
cannot fail to covet a knowledge of their order and relations, 
and to " reverence Him who made the Seven Stars and 
Orion." 

The Milky-'Way around Perseus is very vivid, being un- 
doubtedly a rich stratum of fixed stars, presenting the most 
wonderful and sublime phenomenon of the Creator's power 
and greatness. Kohler, the astronomer, observed a beautiful 
nebula near the face of Perseus, besides eight other nebulous 
clur-ters in ditierent parts of the constellation. 

The head and sword of Perseus are exhibited on the circumpolar map. That 
Tory bright star 23° E. oi Algol, is Capella in the Charioteer. 

History. — Perseus was the son of Jupiter and Danae. He was no sooner borm 
hill iie was cast into the sea with his mother ; but bein^ driven on the coasts 
)f one ortlie islands of the Cyclades, they were rescued by a fisherman, and 
carried to Polydccles, the kins? of the place, who treated tliein with great hii- 
manity, and intrusted them to the care of the priests uf Minerva's Temple. His 
rising genius and manly courage soon made him a favourite of the gods. At a 

How mav Algenib be distinguished? When Is it on the meriJIan? How Ion? arter 
AI?ol? When these two stars are on the meridian, what beautiful cluster is half a.n 
iioureast of it? What is the general apjiearance of the eastern hemisphere at that lime J 
What is the appeamu-e of the Milky Way around Perseus 1 What nebula have been 
Jbierved in this constellation) 



1)2 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [jAM. 

great ipast of Polydectes, all the nobles were expected to present the king with 
a superb and beautiful horse ; but Perseus, who owed his benefactor much, 
not wishing to be thought less munificent than the rest, engaged to bring huii 
the head of Medusa, the only one of the three Gorgons who was subject to mor- 
tality. The names of the other two were Stheno and Euriale. Tiiey were r**- 
nresented with serpents wreathmg round their heads instead of hair, having 
yellow wings and brazen hands ; their bodies which grew indissolubly together, 
were covered with impenetrable scales, and their very looks had the power of 
turning into -tones all those on whom they fixed their eyes. 

To equip Perseus for this perilous enterprise, Pluto, the god of the inferna. 
regions, lent him his helmet, which had tlie power of rendering the wearer in- 
visible. Minerva the goddess of wisdom, furnished him with her buckler, which 
was as resplendent as a pohshed mirror ; and he received from Mercury, winga 
for his feet, and a dagger made of diamonds. Thus equipped, he mounted into 
the air, conducted by Minerva, and came upon the monsters who, with the 
watchful snakes about their heads, were all asleep. He approached them, and 
with a courage which amazed and delighted MinerA'a, cut off with one blow Me- 
dusa's head. The noise awoke the two immortal sisters, but Pluto's helmet ren- 
dered Perseus invisible, and the vengeful pursuit of the Gorgons proved fruitlesa 
" In the mirror of his polished shield 
Reflected, saw Medusa slumbers take, 
And not one serpent by good cliance awake ; 
Then backward an unerring blow he sped, 
And from her body lopped at once her head." 
Perseu? then made his way through the air, with Medusa's head yet re'^kiag 
fn his hand, and from the blood which dropped from it as he flew, sprang aC 
those innumerable serpents that have ever since infested the sandy deserts of 
Lybia. 

The victor Perseus, with the Gorgon head, 
O'er Lybian sands his airy journey sped. 
The goi-y drops distilled, as .swift he flew. 
And from each drop envenomed serpents grew." 
The destruction of Medusa rendered the name of Perseus immortal, and ha 
was changed into a constellation at his death, and placed among the stars, with 
the head of Medu.sa by his side. 



CHAPTER III. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON 
THE MERIDIAN IN JANUARY. 

The constellations which pass our meridian in the months of January, Febm. 
ary and March, present to us the most brilliant and interesting portion of the 
heavens ; embi-acing an annual number of stars of the highest order and bright- 
ness, all so conspicuously situated, that the most inexperienced can easily trace 
them out. 

TAURUS. 

The Bull is represented in an attitude of rage, as if about 
to plunge at Orion, who seems to invite the onset by prove 
cations of assault and defiance. Only the head and shoulders 
of the animal are to be seen ; but these are so distinctly 

What is the comparative hrilliancy of the constellations which pass the meridian in 
January, February and March t How is Taurus represented? What parts of tb« 
ftuimal are to be seen? 



Map. iii.J TAiiKua. ^3 

marked that they cannot be mistaken. Taurus is now the 
second sign and third constellation of tlie Zodiac; but anto 
rior to the time of Abraham, or more than 4000 years ago, 
the vernal equmox took place, and the year opened when the 
sun was in Taurus ; and the Bull, for the space of 2000 years, 
was the prince arid leader of the celestial host. The Ram 
succeeded next, and now the Fishes lead the year. The head 
of Taurus sets with the sun about the last of May, when the 
opposite constellation, the Scorpion is seen to rise in the S. 
E. It IS situated between Perseus and Auriga on the north, 
Gemini on the east, Orion and Eridanus on the south, and 
Aries on the west, having a mean declination of 16° N. 

It contains 141 visible stars, including two remarkable 
clubters called the Pleiades and Hyades. The first is now 
iin the shoulder, and the latter in the face of the Bull. 

The Pleiades, according to fable, were the seven daughters 
of Atlas and the nymph Pleione,* who were turned into stars, 
with their sisters the Hyades, on account of their amiable 
virtues and mutual affection. 

Thus we every where find that the ancients, with all their barbarism and 
Idolatry, entertained the belief that umblemished virtue and a meritorious life 
would "meet their rev^ard in the sky. Thus Mrgil represents Magnus Apollo as 
bending from the sky to address the youth lulus : — 

" 3Iacte nova virtute puer ; sic ilur ad astra ; 
Diis genite, et geniture Deos." 

"Go on, spotless boy, in the paths of virtue -, it is the way to the stars ; offspring 
of the gods thyself^so shalt thou become the father of gods." 

Our disgust at their superstitions may be in some measure mitigated, by seri- 
ously reflecting, that had some of these personages lived in our day, they hail 
been ornaments in the Christian church, and models of social virtue. 

The names of the Pleiades are Alcione, Merone, Maia, 
Eiectra, Tayeta, Sterope and Celeno. Merope was the only 
one who married a mortal, and on that account her star is 
dim among her sisters. 

Although but six of these are visible to the naked eye, ye< 
Dr. Hook informs us that, with a twelve feet telescope, he 
saw 78 stars ; and Rheita affums that he counted 200 stars 
m this small cluster. 

The most ancient authors, such as Homer, Attalus, and Geminus, counted only 
six Pleiades; but Simonides, Varro, Pliny, Aratus, Hipparchus. and Ptolemy, 
reckon them seven in number; and it was asserted, that the seventh had been 
seen before the burning of Troy ; but this difference might, arise from the di 
ference in distinguishing them with the naked eye. < 

• Dr. Hutton is of opinion that Atlas being the first astronomer who disco- 
vered these stars, called them by the names of the daughters of his wife Pleione. 

AVhat is the numerical order of Taurus among the signs and constellations of tho 
Zodiac 1 What was its position in the 2:;odiac before the time of Abraham ? How long 
did it continue to leail the celestial host? What constellation succeeded next ? Where 
is Taunis now silu^Jtedl How mimy stars does it contain? What remarkable clusters 
are in this constellation? Where are these placed? Mention the names of the Pleiailes. 
Which of these seven stars is not seen, and why? Are these six all that can be seen 
through the telescope? 

.5 



54 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [jlN 

The Pleiades aie so called from the Greek word, TrXicur 
pleein, to sail; because, at this season of the year, they 
were considered "the star of the ocean" to the benighted 
mariner.* Alcyone, of the 3d magnitude, being the brightest 
star in this cluster, is sometimes called the light of thi Ple- 
iades. The other five are principally of the 4th and 5th 
magnitudes. 

The Pleiades, or as they are more familiarly termed, the 
seven stars, come to the meridian 10 minutes before 9 o'clock, 
on the evening of the 1st of January, and may serve, in place 
of the sun, to indicate the time, and as a guide to the sur- 
rounding stars. 

According to Hesiod, who wrote about 900 years before the birth of our Sa 
^ic'ir, the heliacal rising of the Pleiades took place on the llth of May, about the 
time of harvest. 

"When, Atlas-bom, the Pleiad stars arise 
Before the sun above the dawning skies, 
'Tis time to reap ; and when they sink below 
The morn-illumin'd west, 'tis time to sow." 
Thus, in all ages, have the stars been observed by the husbandman, for 
"signs and /or seasons." 

Pliny says thatThales. the Miletan astronomer, determined the cosmical setting 
of the Pleiades to be 25 days after the autumnal equinox. This would make a 
difference between the setting at that time and the present, of 35 days, and as a 
day answers to about 59' of the ecliptic, these days will make 34° 25 . This di- 
vid (1 by the annual precision (50|"), will give 2^65 years since the time of 
Tliales. Thus does astronomy become the parent of chronology. 

If it be borne in mind that the stars uniformly rise, come to the meridian, and 
set about four minutes earlier every succeeding night, it will be very easy tc 
determine at what time the seven stars pass the meridian on any night subse- 
quent (jr antecedent to the 1st of January. For example : at what tune will the 

* Viriril.who flourishefl 1200 years before the mvention of the magnetic needle, says 
that the stars were relied -iijon, in the first ages of nautical enterprise, to guide the 
rude bark over the seas. 

"Tunc alnos primura fluvii sensere cavatas : 
Navita turn stellis nmxieros, et nomina fecit, 
Pleiadas, Hi'adas, claramque Lycaonis Arcton." 
'• Then first on seas the shallow alder swam ; 
Then sailors quarter'd heaven, and found a name 
For ever}' fix'd and every wand'img star— 
The Pleiads, Hyads, and the Northern Car.' 
The s.mie poet also describes Palinurus, the renowned pilot of the Trojan fleet, as 
watchmg llie face of the nocturnal heavens." 

" Sidera cuncia notat taclto ial;«entia coeiO, 
Arcturum, pluviasque Hyadas, geminosque Tnones, 
Annatumque.auro circumspicit Oriona." 
" Obser\-e the stars, and notes their sliding course, 
The Pleiads, Hyads, and their wat'ry force ; 
And both the Bears is careful to behold 
And bright Orion, arm'd witn ournish'd gold.' 
Indeed, this sagacious pilot was once so mteni in pacing upon the stars while ai the 
helm, that he fell' overboard, and was lost to his companions. 
" Headloii;: he fell, and, stnigsling in The main, 
Cried out for heluing hands, but cried in vain." 

From what clrcumst.mre do the Pleiadc? ierive 'heir name? What Is the brightest 
of the Pleiades calleil? Wh;it is the si?.f of -he rest? When are the Pleiailes on the 
meridian? How much earlier do the stars rise, cwte to the meridian, and set, every 
^ucceedinp night? 



MAP m.J TAURUS. 55 

seven stars culminate on the 5th January? MuAiply the 5 days by 4 and take 
the result from the time they culminate on the 1st, £ind it will give 30 minutes 
after 8 o'clock in the evening. 

The Pleiades are also sometimes called VergilitE^ or the 
" Virgins of spring ;" because the sun enters this cluster in 
the " season of blossoms," about the 18th of May. He who 
made them alludes to this circumstance when he demands 
of Job : " Canst thou bind the sweet influences of the Pie 
iades," &c.— [Job 38 : 31.] 

The Syrian name of the Pleiades is Succotk, or Succoth-Benoth, derived from 
a Chaldaic word, which signifies "to speculate, to observe," and the '-Men of 
Succothj" (2 Kings 17 : 30.) have been thence considered observers of the 
stars. 

The Hyades are situated 11° S. E. of the Pleiades, in the 
face of the Bull, and may be readily distinguished by means 
of five stars* so placed as to form the letter V. The most 
brilliant star is on the left, in the top of the letter, and called 
Aldeharan ; from which the moon's distance is computed. 

"A star of the first magnitude illumes 
His radiant head ; and of the second rank. 
Another beams not far remote." 

Aldehm^an is of Arabic origin, and takes its name from two 
words which signify, " He went before, or led the way" — 
alluding to that period in the history of astronomy when this 
star led up the starry host from the vernal equinox. It comes 
to the meridian at 9 o'clock on the 10th of January, or 48^ 
minutes after Alcyone, on the 1st. When Aries is about 27° 
high, Aldebaran is just rising in the east. So Ma-mlius: — 

"Thus when the Ram hath doubled ten degrees, 
And join'd seven more, then rise the Hyades." 

A line 15^° E. N. E. of Aldebaran will point out a bright 
star of the 2d magnitude in the extremity of the northern 
horn, marked Beta or El Nath ; (this star is also in the foot 
of Auriga, and is common to both constellations.) From 
Beta in the northern horn, to Zeta, in the tip of the southern 
horn, it is 8°, in a southerly direction. This star forms a 
right angle with Aldebaran and Beta. Beta and Zeta, then, 
in the button of the horns, are in a line nearly north and south, 
8° apart, with the brightest on the north. That very bright 
star 17^° N. of Beta, is Capella, in the constellation Auriga, 

* The ancient Greeks counted seven in this cluster:— 

"The Bull's head shines with seven refulgent flames, 
"Which, Grecia, Hyads, from iheii shmoering, names." 

At what time will the seven stars culminate an the 5th Jamtary? By what other 
names are they sometimes called, and whv? What allusion is made to this cluster 
in the ancient Scriptures? Describe the situation and apiicarince of tiie Hyiules. 
What is the brightest of them called ? What is the ori.L'in of the won! Aldehar.m, and 
to what does it allude? When does Aldeharan culminate? Dcsrrihe the posiiion of 
Beta? What are the name and direction of the srar in the sou'tum horn ? Wliat is the 
relative position of these stars? What very bright star is seen 17° 30' N. of Beta? 



56 FICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [JAU 

HisTOKY -According to the Grecian mytholooy, this is the animal which bore 
Kuropa ovei the seas to that country, which derived from her its name. Siie was 
the aaughter ol Agenor, and princess of Phcenicia. She was so beautiful tliat 
.upitei became enamoured of her ; and assuming the shape of a snow-white 
bull, he mingled with the herds of Agenor, while Europa, with her female at- 
tendants, v/ere gathering flowers in the meadows. Europa caressed the beau 
tiful animal, and at last had the courage to sit upon his back. The god now tooii 
advantage of her situation, and with precipitate steps retired towards the shore, 
and crossed the sea with Europa upon his back, and arrived safe in Crete. Some 
supprse she hved about 1.5.52 years before the Christian era. It is probaole 
however, that this constellation had a place in the Zodiac before the G^-eeks be- 
gan to cultivate a knowledge of the stars ; and that it was rather an invention of 
the Egyptians or Chaldeans. Both the Egyptians and Persians worshipped a 
deity under this figure, by the name of Apis ; and Belzoni is said to have found 
an embalmed bull in one of the notable sepulchres near Thebes 

In the Hebrew Zodiac, Taurus is ascribed to Joseph. 



ORION 

Whoever looks up to this constellation and learns its name, 
will never forget it. It is too beautifully splendid to need a 
description. When it is on the meridian, there is then above 
the horizon the most magnificent view of the celestial bodies 
that the starry firmament affords; and it is visible to all the 
nabitable world, because the equinoctial passes through the 
middle of the constellation. It is represented on celestial 
maps by the figure of a man in the attitude of assaulting the 
Bull, with a sword in his belt, a huge club in his right hand, 
and the skin of a lion in his left, to serve for a shield. 

Manilius, a Latin poet, who composed five books on as- 
tronomy a short time before the birth of our Saviour thus 
describes its appearance : — 

" First next the Twins, see great Orio rise, 
His arms extended stretch o'er half the skie3 
His stride as large, and with a steady pace 
He marches on, and measures a vast space ; 
On each broad shoulder a bright star display'd, 
And three obliquely grace his hanging bladn. 
In his vast head, immers'd in boundless spheres, 
Three stars, less bright, but yet as great, he bears, 
But farther otf removed, their splendour's lost; 
Thus grac'd and arm'd he leads the starry host." 

The centre of the constellation is midAvay between tlie 
poles of the heavens and directly over the equator. It is alsc 
about 8° W. of the solstitial colure, and conies to the me 
ridian about the 23d of January. The whole number of 
visible stars in this constellation is 78; of which, two are of 
the first magnitude, four of the 2d, three of the 3d, and fif- 
teen of the 4th. 

Those four brilliant stars in the form of a long square oi 

What is the general appearance of the constellation Orion? \Vhcn this constellation 
Is on the meridian, wliat is the appearance of the starry lirmament? To whom i.s it 
\'isible, and why? How is Orion represented on celestial maps? Describe its po.'sitioa 
H(nv is ii situated with respect to the sc Istitial colure, and when is 't on the meridian? 
N*''l\at remarkable stars form the outline of the constellation i 



MAP III. I ORION. 5T 

paralJelogram, intersected in the middle by the " Three 
Stars," or "Ell and Yard," about 25° S. of the Bull's horns, 
form the outlines of Orion. The two upper stars in the par 
allelugram are about 15=^ N. of the two lower ones ; and. 
oeing placed on each shoulder, may be called the epaulets of 
Orion. The brightest of the two lower ones is in the left 
foot, on the W., and the other, which is the least brilliant of 
the four, in the right knee. To be more particular : Bella- 
trix is a star of the 2d magnitude on the W. shoulder ; Be- 
teiguese is a star of the 1st magnitude, 7^° E. of Bellatrix, 
on the E. shoulder. It is brighter than Bellatrix, and lies a 
little farther towards the north; and comes to the meridian 
30 minutes after it, on the 21st of January. These two form 
the upper end of the parallelogram. 

Rigel is a splendid star of the 1st magnitude, in the left 
foot, on the W. and 15'=' S. of Bellatrix. Saiph,^ is a star of 
the 3d magnitude, in the right knee, S^° E. of Rigel. These 
two form the lower end of the parallelogram. 
"First in rank . 

The martial star upon his shoulder flames : 

A rival star illuminates his foot ; 

And on his girdle beams a luminary 

Which, in vicinity of other stars, 

Might claim the proudest honours." 

There is a little triangle of three small stars in the head of 
Orion, which forms a larger triangle with the two in his 
shoulders. In the middle of the parallelogram are three stars 
of the 2d magnitude, in the belt of Orion, that form a straight 
line about 3° in length from N. W. to S. E. They are usu- 
ally distinguished by the name of the Three Stars, because 
there are no other stars in the heavens that exactly resemble 
them in position and brightness. They are sometimes de- 
nominated the Three Kings, because they point out the 
Hyades and Pleiades on one side, and Sirius, or the Dog-star 
on the other. In Job they are called the Bands of Orion ; 
while the ancient husbandmen called them Jacobus rod, and 
sometimes the Bake. The University of Leipsic, in 1S07, 
gave them the name of Napoleon. But the more common 
appellation for them, including those in the sword, is the Ell 
and Yard. They derive the latter name from the circum 
s-tance that the line which unites the " three stars" in the belt 
measures just 3° in length, and is divided by the central star 

Describe the two upper ones iji the proup. Describe the two lower ones. Give a 
more jjarticular description of the stars in the shoulder. How do you distinguish Be- 
telguese from Bellatrix? When does Betelsruese come to the meridian? Desi-ribr the 
stars which form the lower end of the panUlelogram. What suirs do you observe in 
the heatl of Orion? Describe the situation and appe;inince of the "Three Stirs?" Why 
are they called the three stars? What else are they denominated, and wny ? What 
names were given to them by the ancients? What by the University of Lciusic* What 
Is the more familiar t3rm for them, and whence is it derived' 



5S j'lcruRE Of riiE hlave.ns. I ja.i 

inio two equal parts, like a yard-stick ; thus service as a 
graduated stand ird for measuring the distances of stars irom 
each other. When therefore any star is described as being 
so many degrees from another, in order to determine the dis- 
tance, it is recommended to apply this rule. 

It is necessary that tlie scholar should task his ingenuity only a few eveu'nijg 
in applying such a standard to the stars, before he will learn to _)adge of th»'ir 
relative distances with an accuracy that will seldom vary a decree Irom the truUi. 

The northernmost star in the belt, called Miniika, is less 
than ^° S. of the equinoctial, and when on the meridian, is 
almost exactly over the equator. It is on the meridian, the 
24th of January.* 

The " three stars" are situated about 8° W. of the solstitial 
colure, and uniformly pass the meridian one hour and fifty 
minutes after the seven stars. 

There is a row of stars of the 4th and 5th masrnitudes, S. ot 
the belt, running down obliquely towards Saiph, which forms 
the sword. This row is also called the Ell because it is 
once and a quarter the length of the Yard or belt. 

A very little way below Thabit, in the sword, there is a ne- 
bulous appearance, the most remarkable one in the heavens. 
With a good telescope an apparent opening is discovered, 
through which, as through a windoAv, we .seem to get a 
glimpse of other heavens, and brighter regions beyond. 

As the telescope extends our knowledge of the stars and greatly incr^asea 
their visilde nuiuber, we behold hundreds and thousands, which, but for this 
almost divine improvement of our vision, had forever remained, unseen by us, 
in an unfathomable void. 

A star in Orion's sword, which appears single to the unassisted vision, is mul- 
tipHed into six by the telescope; and another, into twelve. Galileo found 80 in 
the beh, 21 in a nebulous star in tlie head, and about RX) in another pari ol 
Orion, within the compass of one or two degrees. Dr. Hook saw 78 stars in the 
Pleiades, and Rheita with a better telescope, saw about i^OOin the sauie cluster 
and more than 2000 in Orion. 

About 9° W. of Bellatrix are eight stars, chiefly of the 4tb 
magnitude, in a curved line running N. and S. with the con 
cavity towards Orion ; these point out the skin of the lion in 
his left hand. Of Orion, on the whole, we may remark with 
Eudosia : — 

"He who admires not, to the stars is blind." 
History.— According to some authorities. Orion was the son of Neptune and 
queen Euryale, a famous Amazonian huntress, and possessing the disposition of 

* Thout^h the position of this star, with respect to the equator, is the same a*, all 
'.Imes, wlietber it be on the meridian or in the horizon ; yet It appears to occupy thia 
position, only when it is on the meridian. 

How may the distances of the stars from each other be measured by reference to the 
yard? How are the three stars situated with resjject to the solstitial colure, and how 
with respect to the seven stars ? De.srribe the stars which form the sword of Orion. 
VV"hatelse is this row called'' Describe the nebulous appearance which is visible in 
this cluster. What other discoveries has the telescope made in this constellaiiottt 
What stars abou*. 9^ W. of Bellatrix J 



MAJC III. I ORIOM. M 

\fK mother, he became the greatest hunter in the world, and even boasted that 
there was not an animal on earth which he could not conquer. To punish this 
\dniry, it is said that a scorpion sprung up out of the earth and bit his foot, that 
he died; and that at the request of Diana he was placed among the stars directly 
opposite to the fecorpion that caused his death. Others say that Orion had no 
mr)ther. but was the gift of the gods, Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury, to a peatani 
of Bueoda. as a reward of piety, and that he was invested with the power of w dk- 
ing over the sea without wetting his feet. In strength and stature he surpassea 
all other mortals. He was skilled in the working of iron, from which he fabri- 
cated a subterranean palace for Vidcan ; he also walled in the coasts of :3 cily 
against the inundations of the sea, and built thereon a temple to its gods. 

Orion was betrothed to the daughter of CEnopion, but he. unwilling to give up 
his daughter, contrived to intoxicate the illustrious hero and put out his eyes on 
the seashore where he had laid himself down to sleep. Orion, finding himself 
blind when he awoke, was conducted by the sound to a neiglibouring forge, 
where he placed one of the workmen on' his back, and, by his directions, went 
to a place where the rising sun was seen with the greatest advantage. Here he 
turned his face towards ihe luminary, and, as it is reported, immediately recov- 
ered his sight, and hastened to punish the perfidious cruelty of ffinopion. 

The daughters of Orion distins-aished themselves as much as their father; 
and, when the oracle liad declared that Ekeotia should not be delivered from a 
dreadful pestilence, before two of .Jupiter's children were immolated on the 
altars, rhey joyfitlly accepted the offer, and voluntarily sacrificed themselvps for 
the good of dieir country. The deities of the infernalVrgions were struck at the 
patriotism of the two females, and imuiediately two s:;trs were seen to ascend 
up from the earth, still smokina- with tlieir blood, and thfy were placed in the 
heavens in the form of a crown. Ovid says thpir bodies were burned by the 
Thebans. and that two persons arose from their ashes, whom the gods soon after 
changed info constellations. 

A'^ the constellation Orion, which rises at noon about the 9th day of March, 
and sets at noon about the 21st of June, is generally supposed to be accompani 
ed. at its rising, with great rains and storms, it became extremely terrible to 
manners, in the early adventures of navigation. Virgil, Ovid, and Horace, with 
eome of tiie Greek poets, make mention of this. 

Tints Eneas accounts for the storm which cast him on the African coast on his 
way to Italy :— 

"To that blest shore we .steer'd our destined way, 
When sudden, dire Orion rous"d the s^a : 
All charg'd with tempe.sts rose the baleful star. 
And on our navy pour'd his wat'ry war." 

To induce him to delay his departure. Dido's si.ster advises her to 

"Tell him, that, charg'd with delu2:es of rain, 
Orion rages on the wintry main." 

The name of this constellation is mentioned in the books of .Job and Amo.?, and 
hi Homer. The inspired pi-ophet. penetrated like tho psalmist of Israel, with 
the unmiscience and power displayed in the celestial glories, utters tlii.'i sublime 
tnjunctioh : "Seek Him that make'th the seven stars and Orion, and turneth the 
ohaiiow of death into morning." Job also, with profound veneration, adores Ills 
awful majesty who "commandeth the sun and sealeth up the stars; who alone 
Bpreadeth out the heavens, and maketh Arctunis, Orion, and Pleiades, and the 
chamliers of the south :" And in another place, the Alminhty demands of him- 
"Ktiowe.st thou the ordinances of heaven ] Canst thou bind (he sweet influen- 
ces of the Pleiades, or Uiose the bands of Orion : canst thou bring forth Mazza- 
roth in his season, or canst tliou guide Arcturus with his sons?" 

Calinet supposes thai Mtizzumfli is here put for the whole order of celestia* 
lo'iies in the Zodi?.c. wliirli. by tlieir appointed revolutions, produce the various 
seasons of the year, and tlie regular succession of day and night. Arcturus is 
he name of the principal star in Bootes, and is here put for the constellation 
♦.self The expression, his sons, doubtless refers to Asterion and Chara, the 
two srpyhounds, with whi-^h he seems to be pursuing the great boar around the 
North pole. 

The following lines are copied from a work entitled "Astronomical Recrea- 
tions," by J. Green, of Pennsylvania, to whom the author is indebted for manv 
valuable hints concerning the" mythology of the ancient constellations 



60 PICTURE OF THE HEAVET»-«. | JAll 

* Wlien chilling wnter spreads his azure kies, 

Behold Orion's giant form arise ; 

His golden girdle glitters on the sight, 

And the broad falchion beams in splendour bright 

A lion's brindled hide his bosom shields, 

And his right hand a ponderous ireapon wields. 

The River's shining streams beneath him pour, 

And angry Taurtcs rages close before ; 

Behind him Procyon barks, and Sirixis growls, 

While full in front, the monster Cetus howls. 

See bright Capella, and Medusa there, 

With horrid serpents hissing through her hair, 

See Cancer too, and near the Hydra dire, 

With roai'ing Leo, filled with furious fire. 

The timid Hare, the Dove with olive green, 

And Aries, fly in terrour from the scene ; 

The warrior Perseus gazes from above, 

And the Twin offspring of the thunderer Jove. 

Lo ! in the distance, Cassiope fair 

In state reposes on her golden chair ; 

Her beauteous daughter, bound, before ner stands. 

And vainly strives to free \\er fettered hands ; 

For aid she call? on royal Cepheus near, 

But shrieks from her reach not her fatJier's ear. 

See last of all, around the glowing pole, 

With shining scales, the spiry Dragon roll 

A grizzly Bear on either side appears, 

Creeping with lazy motion 'mid the stars " 
These lines are easily committed to memory, and would assist the pupu In »e- 
calling the names of the constellations in this very interestmg portion of Ih* 
heavens. 



LEPUS. 

The Hare. — This constellation is situated directly south 
of Orion, and comes to the meridian at the same time; 
namely on the 24th of January. It has a mean declination 
18° S. and contains 19 small stars, of which, the four princi- 
pal ones are of the 3d magnitude. It may be readily distin- 
guished by means of four stars of the 3d magnitude, in the 
form of an irregular square, or trapezium. 

Zeta^ of the 4th magnitude, is the first star, and is situa- 
ted in the back, 5° S. of Saiph, in Orion. About the same 
distance below Zeta are the four principal stars, in the legs 
and feet. These form the square. They are marked Alpha, 
Beta, Gamma, Delta. Alpha and Beta otherwise called 
Arneb, form the N. W. end of the trapezium, and are about 
3° apart. Gamma and Delta form the S. E. end, and are 
about 2|° apart. The upper right hand one, which is Arneb, 
is the brightest of the four, and is near the centre of the cod- 

Where is the constellation of the Hare sitnated? When does it come to the meri- 
dian ? What is the whole number of its stars ? What is the niaijnitude of its principal 
ones? How may it be distinguished? In what part of the animal are these stars pla- 
eed? Describe the principal star in Lepus. What are the distince and direction of the 
Sfjuare from Zeta? Describe the stars at each end of this square. Which is tlM 
sri^htest of the four) 



MAP ni. ] COLUMBA — ERIDANUS. (31 

stellation. Four or fire degrees S. of Rigel are four very 
minute stars, in the ears of the Hare. 

History.— This constellation is situated about 18° -west of the Great Dogi 
which, from the motion of the earth, seems to be pursuing it, as the Greyhounds 
do the Bear, round the circuit of the skies. It was one of those animals wliich 
Orion is said to have dehghted in hunting, and which, for this reason, was made 
into a constellation and placed near him among the stars. 



COLUMBA. 

Noah's Dove. — This constellation is situated about 16° S. 
of the Hare, and is nearly on the same meridian with the 
"Three Stars," in the belt of Orion. It contains only 10 
stars ; one of the 2d, one of the 3d, and two of the 4lh mag- 
nitudes ; of these, Phaet and Beta are the brightest, and are 
about 2^° apart. Phaet, the principal star, lies on the right 
and is the highest of the two ; Beta may be known by means 
of a smaller star just east of it, marked Gamma. A line 
drawn from the easternmost star in the belt of Orion, 32° di- 
rectly south, will point out Phaet ; it is also ll-^o S. of the 
lower left hand star in the square of the Hare, and make's 
with Sirius and Naos, in the ship, a large equilateral triangle. 

History. — This constellation is so called in commemoration of the dove wliich 
Noah "sent forth to see if the waters were abated from otF the face of tlio 
ground," after the ark had rested on mount Aiarat. "And the dove came in le 
aim in the evening, and lo, in her mouth was an oUve leaf plucked off." 

" The surer messenger, 

A dove sent forth once, and again to spy 

Green tree or ground, whereon his foot may light* 

The second time returning, in his bill 

An oUve leaf he brings, pacific sign!" 



ERIDANUS. 

The River Po. — This constellation meanders over a large 
and very irregular space in the heavens. It is not easy, nor 
scarcely desirable, to trace out all its windings among the 
stars. Its entire length is not less than 130^ ; which, for the 
sake of a more easy reference, astronomers divide into two 
sections, the northerfi and the southern. That part of it 
which lies between Orion and the Whale, including the great 
bend about his paws, is distinguished by the name of the 
Northern stream ; the remainder of it is called the SoiUhem 
itream. 

The Northern stream commences near Rigel, in the foot 

Are these all the stars that are visible in this constellation? Describe the situalloD 
of Noah's Dove. How many stars does it contain, and what are the principal? 'Which 
of these are the brightest, and how situated? How mav Beta be known ? wh?t is the 
position of Phaet with regard to Orion? Describe the general form of the constellation 
Eridanus. ^Vhat is its entire length, and how is it divided? Bv what names are tliese 
sections distinj^uishedl What are the course and distance of the Northern stream? 

6 



62 PICTURE OF THF. HEA-VENS. )JAN 

of Orion, and flows out westerly, in a serpentine course 
nearly 40°, to the Whale, where it suddenly maKes a com- 
plete circuit and returns back nearly the same distance ii)- 
wards its source, but bending gradually down towards tJie 
south, when it again makes a similar circuit to the S. W. 
and finally disappears below the horizon. 

West of Rigel there are five or six stars of the 3(1 and 4th magnitudes, arching 
up in a semicircular form, and marlving the first bend of the northern stream. 
About S° below these, or 19° W. of Rigel, is'a brigiit star of the 2d magnitude, 
in the second bend of tlie northern stream, marked (Jamma. This star cul- 
minates 13 minutes after the Pleiades, ami one hour and a quarter before Rigel. 
Passing Gamma, and a smaller star west of it, there are four stars nearly in a 
row, wiiich bring us to the brea.st of Cetus. 8° \. of Gammei, is a small star 
named Kied^ which is thought by some to be consiuerably nearer the earth than 
Sirius 

Tkeemim, in the southern stream, is a star of the 3d magnitude, aoout 17° 8. 
W. of the square in Lepu.s, and may be known by means of a smaller star, 1° 
R!)i)ve it. Acheniar is a brilliant star of the 1st rnagnitude, in the extremity of 
the cjouthern stream ; but having 58° of S. declination, can never be seen in this 
latitude. 

The whole number of stars in this constellation is 84; of 
which, one is of the 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleven 
are of the 3d. Many of these cannot be pointed out by ver- 
bal description ; they must be traced from the map 

History. — Eridanus is the name of a celebrated river in Cisalpine Gaul, also 
called Padus. Its modern name is Po. Virgil calls it the king of rivers. The Latin 
poets have rendered it memorable from its connexion with the fable of Phaeton, 
who, being a aon of Phoebus and Clytnene, became a favourite of Venus, who 
intrusted :ii'Ji with the care of one of her temples. This favour of the goddess 
made him vain, and he sooghi of his father a public and incontestable sign of his 
tendi.T.ees, that should convince the world of his origin. Phoebus, after .some 
herfation, made oath that he would grant him whatever he required, and no 
sooner was the oath uttered, than — 

"The youth, transported, asks without delay, 

To guide the sun's bright chariot for a day. 

The god repented of the oath he took. 

For anguish thrice his radiant head he shook ;- - 

My son, Wxys he, some other proof require. 

Rash was niy promise, rash was thy desire — 

Not Jove himself the ruler of the sky. 

That hurls the three-forked thunder from above, 

Dares try his strength ; yet who as strong as Jove 1 

Besides, consider what impetuous force 

Turns stars and planets in a difTrent course. 

I steer against their motions; nor am I 

Borne back by all the current of the'sky : 

But how could you resist the orbs that roll 

In adverse whirls, and stem the rapid polll" 
Phoebus represented the dangers to which he would be exposed in vain. Fie 
undertook the aerial journey, and the explicit directions of his father were for- 
gotten. No sooner had Phaeton received the reins than he betrayed his igno- 
rance of the manner of guidinig the chariot. The flying coursers became sen- 
sible of the confusion of their driver, and immediately departed from the usual 
track. Phaeton repented too late, of his rashness, and already heaven and earth 

Describe Its first bend? Describe the position of Gamma, and tell when It comes tc 
Ihe meridian'? IVTiat stars are between Gamma and the \Vhale1 What smo-ll star 
about 8° above Gamma, and what is its distance from the earth compared with thai qf 
SiritisJ Describe the situation of Theemim. Describe the position and magnitvM 
of irchernar? What is the whole number of stars in this constellation? What is the 
ftiagnitude of the principal ones? 



MAP IIlJ AURIGA. 63 

were threatened with a universal conflagration as the consequence, when Jupi- 
ter. perceiving,the disorder of the horses, struck the driver with a thunderbolt, 
and hurled hiui headlong from heaven into the river Eridanus. His body, con- 
sumed with fire, was found by the nymphs of the place, who honoured mm with 
a decent burial, and inscribed this epitaph upon his tomb : — 
" Hie situs est Phaeton, currus auriga paterni : 
Queue sinon tenuity magnis tamen excidit ausis." 
His sisters mourned his unhappy end, and were changed by Jupiter inle 
p<)p!ars. 

"AJl the long night their mournful watch they keep, 
And all the day stand round the tomb and weep." — Ovid. 
It is said the tears which they shed, turned to amber, with which the Phosnl- 
ciaus and Carthaginians carried on in secrecy a most lucrative trade. The great 
heat produced on the occasion of the sun's departing out of his usual course, is 
said to have dried up the blood of the Ethiopians, and turned their skins black; 
and to have produced sterility and barrenness over the greater part of Lybia. 
"At once from life and from the chariot driven, 
Th' ambitious boy fell thunderstruck from heaven." 

"The breathless Phaeton, with flaming hair, 
Shot from the chariot like a falling star, 
That in a summer's evening from the top 
Ofheav'n drops down, or seems' at least to drop, 
Till on the Po his blasted corpse was hurl'd, 
Far from his country, in the western world." 
The fable of Phaeton evidently alludes to some extraordinary heats which 
were experienced in a very remote period, and of which only tiiis confused tra- 
lition has descended to later times. 



AURIGA. 

The Charioteer, called also the Wagoner, is represented 
on the celestial map by the figure of a man in a declining 
posture, resting one foot upon the horn of Taurus, with a 
goat and her kids in his left hand, and a bridle in his right. 

It is situated N. of Taurus and Orion, between Perseus on 
the W. and the Lynx on the E. Its mean decimation is 45° 
N. ; so that when on the meridian, it is almost directly over 
head in New England. It is on the same meridian with 
Orion, and culminates at the same hour of the night. Both 
of these constellations are on the meridian at 9 o'clock on the 
24th of January, and 1 hour and 40 minutes east of it on the 
1st of January. 

The whole number of visible stars in Auriga, is 66, inclu- 
ding one of the 1st and one of the 2d magnitude, which mark 
the shoulders. Capella is the principal star in this constel- 
lation, and is one of the most brilliant in the heavens. It 
takes its name from Capella, the goat, which hangs upon the 
left shoulder. It is situated in the west shoulder of Auriga, 

How is the constel'ation Aurisa represented? Where is it situated? What is its mean 
aeclinaijon, and what its position on the meridian? How is it situated in respect to 
Orion? When are these constellations on the meridian? What is the whole numbef 
of visible stars in Aurica? How many of the 1st and 2il masmitiide? What is the nami 

' the principal star, and whence derived? Where is this situated? 



)4 PICTHRE OF THE HEAVENS. ( JAN 

24^ E. of Algol, and 28° N. E. of the Pleiades. It may be 
known by a little sharp-pointed triangle formed by three stars. 
3° or 4° this side of it, on the left. It is also 18" N. of E: 
Nath, which is common to the northern horn of Taurus, ana 
the right foot of Auriga. CapeUa comes to the meridian on 
the 19th of January, just 2^ minutes before Rigel, in the fool 
of Orion, which it very much resembles in brightness. 

Menkalina, in the east shoulder, is a star of the 2d magnitude, 7^° E. of Capella 
anij culiiiiiiates the next minute after Betelguese, 37 j° S. of it. 7%e<a, in the 
rght arm. is a star of the 4th magnitude, 8° directly south of Menkalina. 

It may be remarked as a curious coincidence, that the two stars in the shoul- 
ders of Auriga are of the same magnitude, and just as far apart as those in Orion, 
and opposite to them. Again, the two stars in the shoulders of Auriga, with tiie two 
in the shoulders of Orion, mark the extremities of a long, narrow parallelogram, 
lying N. and S., and whose length is just five times its breadth. Also, the two 
stars in Auriga, and the two in Orion, make two slender and similar triangles, 
both meeting in a common point, half way between them at El Nath, in the nortli- 
crn horn of Taurus. 

Delta, a star of the 4th magnitude in the head of Auriga, is about 9° N. of the 
two in the slioulders, with which it makes a triangle, about half the height of 
those just alluded to, with the vertex at Delta. The two stars in the shoulders 
are therefore the base of two similar triangles, one extending about 9^ N., to the 
head, the other 18° S., to the heel, on the top of the horn : both figures together 
resembling an elongated diamond. 

Delta in the head. Menkalina in the right shoulder, and Thefa in the arm of 
Auriga, make a straight hne with Betelguese in Orion, Delta in the square erf the 
Hare, and Beta in Noah's Dove ; all being very nearly on the same meridian, 
4° W. of the solstitial colure. 

"See next the Goatherd with his kids; he shines 
With seventy stars, deducting only four. 
Of which Capella never sets to us,* 
And scarce a star witii equal rariiance oeams 
TIpon the earth : two other stars are seen 
Due to the second order." — Eudosia. 
History. — The Greeks give various accounts of this constellation; some sup 
pose it to be Erichchonius, the fourth king of Athens, and son of Vulcan and Mi- 
nerva, wlio awarded him a place among the constellations on account of his many 
useful inventions. He was of a monstrous shape. He is said to have invented 
chariots, and to have excelled all others in the management of horses. In al'u- 
sion to this, Virgil has the following lines :— 

"Primus Erichthonius currus etquatuor ausus 
Jungere equos, rapidisque rotis insistere victor." 

Georgic. Lib. iii. p. 113 
"Bold Erichthonms was the first who join'd 
Four horses for the rapid race design'd, 
And o'er the dusty wheels presiding sate " — Dryden. 
Other writers say that Bootes invented the chariot, and that Auriga was the 
eon of Mercury, and charioteer to GEnomaus. king of Pisa, and so experienced, 
.hat he rendered his horses the swiftest in all Greece. But as neither of these 
fables seems to account for the goat and her kids, it has been supposed that they 
refer to Ahnathaea and her suster Mehssa, who fed Jupiter, during his infancy, 

* In the latitude of London ; but in the latitmle of New England, Cafiella disappear* 
below the horizon, in the N. N. V., for a few hours, and then reappears in the N. N. E. 

How may it be known? What are its distance and dircrtlon from El Nafn. In the 
horn of Taurus? When does Capella come to the meridian ? Describe the star in tfu 
east nhoulder of Auriga. Describe Theta. UTiat curiouf coincidence cxints between 
the stars in the shoulders of Auriga and those in the shoulders qfOrionl Describe the 
situation of Delta. The two stars in the shoulders of Auriga form the base oftioo tri- 
angles; please describe the7H. What stars in Auriga. Orion, the Hare, and thr Done, 
are on the same meridian ? Hoxo far is this line of itars west (if the solaii:ial colui 1 1 



MAP in. J CAMELOPARDALUS THE LYNX. 65 

wif;i goat's milk, and that, as a reward for their kindness, they were placed in 
the heavens. But there is no reason assigned for their being placed in the aniig 
of Auriga, and the inference is unavoidable, that mythology is in fault on .Uia 
point. 

Jcimieson is of opinion that Auriga is a mere type or scientific symbol of the 
beautiful fable of Phaeton, because he was the attendant of Phoebus at that re- 
mote period when Taurus opened the year. 

CAMELOPARDALUS. 

The Camelopard. — This constellation was made by He- 
velius out of the unformed stars which lay scattered 'between 
Perseus, Auriga, the head of Ursa Major, and the Pole Star. 
It is situated directly N. of Auriga and the head of the Lynx, 
and occupies nearly all the space between these and the pole. 
It contains 58 small stars ; the five largest of Avhich are only 
of the 4th magnitude. The principal star lies in the thigh, 
and is about 20° from Capella, in a northerly direction. It 
marks the northern boundary of the temperate zone ; being 
less than one degree S. of ttie Arctic circle. There are two 
other stars of the 4th magnitude near the right knee, 12° N. E. 
of the first mentioned. They may be known by their standing 
1° apart and alone. 

The other stars in this constellation are too small, and too 
much scattered to invite observation. 

History. — The Camelopard is so called from an animal of that name, peculiar 
Po Etliiopia. This animal resembles both the camel and the leopard. Its body 
is spotted like that of the leopard Its neck is about seven feet long, its fore and 
hind legs, from the hoof to the second joint,' are nearly of the same length; but 
from the second joint of the legs to the body, the fore legs are so long in com- 
parison with the hind ones, that no person could sit upon its back, without in 
Btantly sliding otf as from a horse that stood up on his hind feet. 



CHAPTER IV. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON 
THE MERIDIAN IN FEBRUARY. 

THE LYNX. 

The constellation of the Lynx, like that of the Camelopard, 
exhibits no very interesting features by which it can be dis- 
iinguished. It contains only a moderate number of inferior 
stars, scattered over a large space N. of Gemini, and between 
Auriga and Ursa Major. The whole number is 44, including 

Of what was the CamoIoiKird madei Whei-e is it situated? What is the whole nuni 
t)er of stars? Wh:it is t!ie nmstnitude of the largest? "What are the name and position 
of the iirimniial one? Where are the other principal stars situated? How may they 
be known? Uliencr dors it derive its name) What is the siluation of the uynx* 
What are the number and magnitude of its stars? 

6 



66 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS [fEB. 

' only' three that are so large as the 3d magnitude. The largest 
of these, near the mouth, is in the solstitial colure, 14^° N. of 
Menkalina, in the E. shoulder of Auriga. The other two prin 
cipal stars are in the brush of the tail, 3^° S. W. of another 
star of the same brightness in the mouth of the Lesser Lion, 
with which it makes a small triangle. Its centre is on the 
meridian at 9 o'clock on the 23d, or at half past 7 on the 1st, 
of February. 

History —This constellation takes its name from a wild beast which is said to 
be of the genus of the wolf. 



GEMINL 

The Twins. — This constellation represents, in a sitting 
j.'osture, the twin brothers. Castor and Pollux. 

Gemini is the third sign, but fourth constellation in the 
order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the Lynx, be- 
tween Cancer on the east, and Taurus on the west. The 
orbit of the earth passes through the centre of the constella:- 
tion. As the earth moves round in her orbit from the first 
point of Aries to the same point again, the sun, in the meaii- 
time, will appear to move through the opposite signs, or thos« 
which are situated right over against the earth, on the other 
side of her orbit. 

Accordingly, if we could see the stars as the sun appeared 
to move by them, we should see it passing over the constel- 
lation Gemini be tAveen the 21st of June and the 23d of July; 
but we seldom see more than a small part of any constellation 
through which the sun is then passing, because the feeble 
lustre of the stars is obscured by the superior effulgence of the 
sun. 

When the sun is just entering the outlines of a constellation on the east, its 
western limit may be seen in the morning twilight, just above the rising sun. So 
when the sun has arrived at the western limit of a constellation, the eastern part 
of it may be seen Ungering in the evening twilight, just behind the setting sun. 
Under other circumstances, when the sun is said to be in, or to enter, a particu- 
lar constellation, it is to be understood that that constellation is not then visible, 
but that tliose opposite to it, are. For example : whatever constellation sets with 
the sun on any day, it is plain that the one opposite to it must be then rising, 
and continue visible through the night. Also, whatever constellation rises and 
sets with the sun to-day, will, six months hence, rise at sun-setting, and set at 
Bun-rising. For example : the sun is in the centre of Gemini about the 6th of 

Describe the position of the largest. Describe the jmsition of the other two principal 
stars. What are their distance and direction from the one in the head? When is its 
centre on the meridi.in? Describe the position and appearance of the Twins. What 
Is tlie relative position of Gemini among the signs and constellations of the Zodiac* 
How is the orbit of the earth situated, with respect to these constellations? How d» 
Vhe sun and earth appear to move through these signs? When does the sun appear to 
pass through the constellation Gemini? Do we usually see the constellations while 
Vhe sun is passing through them? Under what circunustances can ice see some part of 
thetn? When the sun is'in or entering any constellation, arc the apposite constella 
tions visible or not ? If a constellation rise with the sun to-day, how xoUl it rise tia 
months hence 1 Give an example. 



MAP III. J GEMINI. 67 

July, and must rise and set with it on that day ; consequenfly, six months fri)m 
that time, or about tiie 4th of January, it will rise in the ea^t. Jus: when the sun 
is setting in the west, and will come to the meridian at midiiight ; being then ex- 
actly opposite to the sun. 

Kow as the stars gain upon the sun at the rate of two hours every month, it 
follows that the centre of this constellation will, on the 17th of February, come 
to the meridian three Iwurs earlier, or at 9 o'clock in the evening. 

It would be a pleasant exercise for students to propose questions to each 
other, somewhat Uice the following : — What zodiacal constellation will rise and 
set with the sun to-day 1 What one will rise at sun-setting 1 What constellation 
is three hours high at sun-set, and where will it be at 9 o'clock 1 What constel- 
lation rises two hours before the sun 7 How many days or months hence, and 
at what hour of the evening or morning, and in what part of the sky shall we see 
the constellation whose centre is now where the sun is I &c., &c. 

In solving these and similar questions, it may be remembered that the sun is 
in the vernal equinox about the 2Ist of March, from whence it advances through 
one sign or constellation every succeeding month thereafter ; and that each ccm- 
stellation is one month in advance of the sign of that name : wherefore, reckon 
Pisces in March, Aries in April, Taurus in May, and Gemini in June, &c. ; be- 
ginning with each constellation at the 21st, or 22d of the month. 

Gemini contains 85 stars, including one of the 1st, one of 
the 2d, four of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitudes. It is 
readily recognised by means of the two principal stars, Cas- 
tor and Pollux, of the 1st and 2d magnitudes, in the head of 
the Twins, about 4^° apart. 

There being only 11 minutes' difference in the transit of 
these two stars over the meridian, they may both be consid- 
ered as culminating at 9 o'clock about the 24th of February. 
Castor, in the head of Castor, is a star of the 1st magnitude, 
4^° N. W. of Pollux, and is the northernmost and the bright- 
est of the two. Pollux, is a star of the 2d magnitude, in the 
head of Pollux, and is 4^° S. E. of Castor. This is one of 
the stars from which the moon's distance is calculated in the 
Nautical Almanac. 

• "Of the famed Ledean pair, 

One most illustrious star adorns their sign. 
And of the second order shine twin hghts.'" 

The relative magnitude or brightness of these stars has 
undergone considerable changes at different .periods ; whence 
it has been conjectured by various astronomers that Pollux 
must vary from the 1st to the 3d magnitude. But Herschel, 
who observed these stars for a period of 25 years, ascribes the 
rariation to Castor, which he found to consist of two stars, 
very close together, the less revolving about the larger once 
in 342 years and two months. 

Bradly and Maskelyne found that the line joining the two stars which form 
Castor was, at all times of the year, parallel to the line joining Ca.stor and Pollux; 
*nd that both of the former move around a connnon centre between them, ia 

If a constellation come to the meridian at mid->i^ht to-day, hmo long before it wilt 
eome to the meridian at 9 o'clock in the evening 7 If the constellation Gemini come M 
the meridian at midnight, on the \th ofJamiary, when will it culminate at 9 o'clock? 
What is the number of stars in Gemini? By what means is it rc;ulily recOiSjnisedl 
When do these stars culminate? Describe Castor. Describe Pollux. For wh.it Dn*" 
pose IS it observed at sea? Is the brightness of these two stars always the sarael A 
uciibee this variableness to Castor, and for what reasons 



68 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS TLB 

-.rbits nearly circular, as two balls attached to a rod would do, if suspeniied by » 
string affixed to the centre of gravity between them. 

''Tliese men," says Dr. BowJitcl^i, "were endowed with a sharpness of vision, 
and a power of penetrating into space, almost unexampled in the history ;?f a* 
U'onomy." 

A.bout 20° S. W. of Castor and Pollux, and in a line nearly parallel with them, 
is a row of stars 3° or 4° apart, chietly of tlie 3d and 4th magnitudes, which dis- 
tinguish the feet of the twins. The brightest of iliese is Alhena, in Pollux's upper 
foot ; the next small star S. of it, is in his other foot : the two upper stars in the 
line next above Gamma, marlc Castor's feet. 

This row of feet is nearly two tliirds of the distance from Pollux to Betelguese 
•u Orion, and a line connecting them will pass through Alhena, the principal star 
in the feet. About two thirds of the distance from the two in the head to toose 
in the feet, and nearly parallel with them, there is another row of three stara 
about 6° apart, which mark the knees. 

There are, in this constellation, two other remarkable parallel rows, lying at 
right angles with the former; one, leading from the head to tlie foot of Castor, 
the brightest star being in the middle, and in the knee ; the other, leading from 
the head to the foot of Pollux, the brightest star, called Wasat. being in the body, 
and Zeta, next belcw it, in the knee. 

Wasat is in the ecliptic, and very near the centre of the constellation. The 
two stars, Mu and Tejat, in the northern foot, are also very near the ecliptic : 
Tejat is a small star of between the 4th and 5th magnitudes, 2° W. of Mu, and 
deserves to be noticed because it marks the spot of the summer solstice, in the 
tropic of Cancer, just where the sun is on the longest day of the year, and i% 
moreover, the dividing limit between the torrid and the N. temperate zone. 

Propus, also in the ecliptic, 2^° W. of Tejat, is a star of only the 5th magni- 
tude, but rendered memorable as being the star which served for many years to 
determine the position of the planet Herschel, after its first discovery. 

Thus as we pursue the study of the stars, we shall find continually new and 
more wonderful developments to engage our feelings and reward our labour. We 
shall have the peculiar satisfaction of reading the same volume that was spread 
out to the patriarchs and poets of other ages, of admiring what they admired, and 
of being led as they were led, to look upon these lofty mansions of being as hav- 
ing, above them all, a common Father with ourselves, " who rtileth in the armies 
of heaven, and bringeth forth their hosts by number." 

History.— Castor and Pollux were twin brothers, sons of Jupiter, by Leda, 
the wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. The manner of their birth was very sin- 
gular. They were educated at Pallena, and afterwards embarked with Jason in 
the celebrated contest for the golden tleece, at Colchis ; on which occasion they 
behaved with unparalleled courage and bravery. Pollux distinguished himself 
by his achievements in arms and personal prowess, emd Castor in equestrian 
exercises and the management of horses. Whence they are represented, in llie 
temples of Greece, on white horses, armed with spears, riding side by side, 
their heads crowned with apetasus, on whose top glittered a star. Among tlie 
ancients, and especially among the Romans, there prevailed a superstition tha« 
Castor and Pollux often appeared at the head of their armies, and led on thoii 
troops to battle and to victory. 

"Castor and Pollux, first in martial force. 
One bold on foot, and one renown'd for horse. 
Fail Leda's twins in time to stars decreed, 
One fought on foot, one curb'd the fiery steed." — VirgiL 
"Castor alert to tame the foaming steed, 
And Pollux strong to deal the manly <leed." — Martial. 

Til J brothers cleared the Hellespont and the neighbouring seas from pirates 
after tLn'w return from Colchis; from which circuinstance they have ever sinc« 
been regarded as the friends and protectors of navigation. In the Argonauti<- 
expedition, during a violent storm, it is said two Jiauies of fire were seen to play 
around their heads, and immediately the tempest ceaseil, and the sea was calm. 

Describe the stars which viark the feet of the Twins. Specify the stars in each. How 
is this rnuP situated with respect to Orion 7 Describe the second roio of sta rs in thi$ 
cotistellatton. Are there yet other roios in this constellation 7 Describe them. What 
is the position of Wasat 7 Two other stars are very near the ecliptic ; mention than 
Dtacnbe the position of Teyat. Give a description qfthe star Proptu. 



MAP III.j CANIS MINOR. 69 

From this circumstance, the sailors inferred, that whenever both fires appeared 
m the sky, it would be fair weather : but when oaly one appeared, there would 
be storms. 

St. Paul, after being wrecked on the island of Melita, embarked for Rome "in 
% ship whose sign was Castor and Pollux ;'■' so formed, no doubt, in accordance 
with the popular belief that these divinities presided over the science and safer* 
of navigation. 

They were initiated into the sacred mysteries of Cabiri, and into those of Ceres 
uid Eleusis. They were invited to a feast at which Lynceus and Idas were going 
to celebrate their nuptials with Phcebe and Telaria, the daughters of Leucippus, 
Diother to Tyndarus. They became enamoured of the daughters, who were 
about to be married, and resolved to supplant their rivals : a battle ensued, ui 
which Castor killed Lynceus, and \vas himself killed by Idas. Pollux revenged 
the death of his brotlier by liiUing Idas ; but, being himself immortal, and most 
tenderly attached to his deceased brother, he was unwilling to survive him ; he 
therefore entreated Jupiter to restore him to hfe, or to be deprived himself of 
immortaUty ; wherefore, Jupiter permitted Castor, who had been slain, to share 
the immortality of Pollux ; and consequently, as long as the one was upon earth, 
so long was the other detained in the infernal regions, and they alternately hved 
and died every day. Jupiter also further rewai'ded their fraternal attachment 
by changing them'both into a constellation under the name of Gemini, Twins, 
which, it is strangely pretended, never appear together, but when one rises the 
ather sets, and so on alternately. 

" By turns they visit this ethereal sky, 

And live alternate, and alternate die." — Homer. 
" Pollux, offering his alternate Ufe, 
Could free his brother, and could daily go 
By turns aloft, by turns descend heXovf.''— Virgil. 

Castor and Pollux were worshipped both by the Greeks and Romans, who 
eacrificed white lambs upon their altars. In the Hebrew Zodiac, the consteUa- 
lion of the Twins refers to the tribe of Benjamin. 



CANIS MINOR. 

The Little Dog. — This small constellation is situated 
about 5° N. of the equinoctial, and midway hetv/een Canis 
Major and the Twins. It contains 14 stars, of which two are 
very brilliant. The brightest star is called Procyon. It is 
of the 1st magnitude, and is about 4° S. E. of the next bright- 
est, marked Gomelza, which is of the 2d magnitude. 

These two stars resemble the two in the head of the Twins. 
Procyon, in the Little Dog, is 23° S. of Pollux in Gemini, 
and Gomelza is about the same distance S. of Castor. 

A great number of geometrical figures may be formed of 
the principal stars in the vicinity of the Little Dog. For ex- 
ample ; Procyon is 23° S. of Pollux, and 26° E. of Betelguese, 
and forms with them a large right angled triangle. Again 
Procyon is equidistant from Betelguese and Sirius, and forms 
with thein an equilateral triangle whose sides are each about 
26°. If a straight line, connecting Procyon and Sirius. be 
produced 23° farther, it will point out Phaet, in the Dove. 

Describe the situation of Canis Minor. What is its whole number of stars? ^Vhat 
ts the matrnituile of its princiiial ones? What is the brightest one called, and how Is 
It situated? \\'h:it other stars dc Procyon and Gomelza resemble? What are the distance 
tndilireclicn of Procvon frdui Pollux? Of Gomelza from Castor? What are theirdistanco 
an.l ilhectiou Uom Castor and Pollux? What kind of figures may be formed of th6 
stars in the neiy'ibourliood of the Little I)i«? Give some examples. 



70 PICTURE OF THE HEAVLN8. [FEB. 

Procyon is often taken for the name of the Little Dos:, or 
for the whole constellation, as Sirius is for the greater one; 
hence it is common to refer to either of these constellations 
by the name of its principal star. Procyon comes to the me- 
ridian 53 minutes after Sirius, on the 24th of February ; 
although it rises, in this latitude, about half an hour before it. 
For this reason, it was called Procyon, from two Greek words 
which signify (Ante Canis) "before the dog." 

"Canicula, fourteen thy stars ; but far 
Above them all, illustrious through the skies, 
Beams Procyon ; justly by Greece thus called 
The hx\g\ii forerunner of the greater Dog." 

flisTORY. — The Little Dog, according to Greek fable, is one of Orion's hounds. 
Some suppose it refers to the Egyptian god Anubis, which was represented with 
a dog's head : others to Diana, the goddess of hunting ; and others, that it is the 
faithful dog Msera, which belonged to Icarus, and. discovered to his daughtei 
Erigone the place of his burial. Others, again, say it is one of Actaeon's hounds 
tliat devoured their master, after Diana had transformed him into a stag, to pre^ 
vent, as she said, his betraying her. 

"This said, the man began to disappear 
By slow degrees, and ended in a deer. 
Transform'd at length, he flies away in haste, 
And wonders why he flies so fast. 
But as by chance, within a neighb'ring brook, 
He saw his branching horns, and alter'd look, 
Wretched Actseon ! in a doleful tone 
He tried to speak, but only gave a groan ; * 

And as he wept, within the watery glass. 
He saw the big round drops, with" silent pace, 
Run trickling down a savage, hairy face. 
What slioulil he do '! or seek his old abodes, 
Or herd among the deer, and skulk in woods'? 
As he thus ponders, he behind him spies 
His opening hounds, and now he liears their erics. 
From shouting ni»;n, and horns, and dogs, he flies. 
When now the fleetest of the pack that press'd 
Close at his heels, and sprung before the rest, 
Had fasten'd on him, straight another pair 
Hung on liis wounded side, and held him there. 
Till all the pack came up, and every hound 
Tore the sad huntsman grovelling on the ground."* 

It is most probable, however, that the Egyptians were the inventors of this con 
slellation ; anrl as it always rises a little before the Dog-star, which, at a particu- 
lar season, they so much dreaded, it is properly represented as a little watchful 
creature, giving notice like a faithful sentinel of the others approach. 

* It is not difficult to deduce the moral of this fable. The selfishness and caprice of 
human friendship furnish daily illustrations of it. While the •rood man, the philan- 
thropist, or the public benefactor, is in affluent circumstances, and, with a heart to 
devise, has the power to minister blessings to his numeroii.s beneficiaries, his virtues 
are the general theme ; but when adverse storms have changed the ability, though 
they could not shake the will of their benefactor, he is straightway pursued, like Ac-- 
taeon, by his own hounds ; and, like Actjeon, he is " torn to the ground" by the faagfl 
that fed upon his bounty.— L. Q. C. L. 

What nume is usually given to th' Little Dog? When does Procyon rise and culmi- 
nate, with respect to the Dog .<iar? What name, for this reason, was Riven to thia 
constellation? 



MAP III. I MONOCEROS — CANIS MAJOR. ""• 

MONOCEROS. 

The Unicorn. — This is a modern constellation, which wa:^ 
made out of the unformed stars of the ancients that lay scat- 
tered over a large space of the heavens between the two 
Dogs. It extends a considerable distance on each side of the 
equinoctial, and its centre is on the same meridian with 
Procyon. 

It contains 31 small stars, of which the seven principal 
ones are of only the 4th magnitude. Three of these are 
situated in the head, 3° or 4° apart, foraiing a straight line 
N, E. and S. W. about 9° E. of Betelguese in Orion's shoul- 
der, and about the same distance S. of Alhena in the foot of 
the Twins. 

The remaining stars in this constellation are scattered over 
a large space, and being very small, are unworthy of particu- 
lar notice. 

History.— The Monoceeos is a species of the Unicom or Rhinoceros. It is 

about the size of a horse, with one white horn groAving out of the middle of its 
forehead. Ii is said to exist in the wilds of Ethiopia, and to be veiy formidable. 

Naturalists say that, wlien pursued by the liunters. it precipitates itself from 
the tops of the highest rocks, and pitches upon its horn, which sustains the whole 
ibrce of its fall, so that it receives no damage thereby. Sparmann informs us, 
that the figure of the unicorn, desci'ibed by some of the ancients, has been found 
delineated on the surface of the rock in CalTraria ; and thence conjectures that 
such an animal, instead of being fabulous, as some suppose, did once actually 
exist in Africa. Lobo affirms that he has seen it. 

The rhinoceros, wnich is akin to it, is found in Bengal, Siam, Cochin China, 
part of China Proper, and the isles of Java and Sumatra. 



CANIS MAJOR. 

The Great Dog. — This interesting constellation is situa- 
ted southward and eastward of Orion, and is universally 
Known by the brilliance of its principal star. Siriiis, which is 
apparently the largest and brightest in the heavens. It glows 
m the winter hemisphere with a lustre which is unequalled 
by any other star in the firmament. 

Its distance from the earth, though computed at 20 millions 
of millions of miles, is supposed to be less than that of any 
other star : a distance, however, so great that a cannon ball, 
which flies at the rate of 19 miles a minute, would be two 
aiillions of years in passing over the mighty interval ; while 
sound, moving at the rate of 13 miles a minute, would reach 
Sirius in little less than three millions of years. 

What stars compose the constellation Monoceros? How is this constellation situ- 
ated, and when is it on the meridian? What is the whole numher of its stars? Whai 
is the magnitude of its principal ones? Describe those in the head. Describe the po- 
sition and appearance of Canis Major. What is its appearance in the winter? Wh« 
ts its distance from the earth computed to be, and how is it compareil with tiiat of th« 
other stars? How long would it talce a cannon-ball to pass over this distance In what 
tiin4 would sound reach Sirius from the earth 1 



72 PICTURE OF THE HEAVEN*. i FEB. 

It may be shown in the same manner, that a ray of light, which occupies only 
8 minutes and 13 seconds in coming'to us from the sun, which is at the rate of 
nearly two hundred thousand miles a second, would be 3 years and 82 days in 
passing through the vast space that lies between Sirius and the earth. Coase- 
quently, were it blotted from the heavens, its light would continue visible to ua 
for a period of 3 years and 82 days after it had ceased to be. 

If the nearest stars give such astonishing results, what shall we say of those 
which are situated a thousand times as far beyond these, as these are from us? 

In the remote ages of the world, when every man was his 
own astronomer, the rising and setting of Sirius, or the Dog' 
star, as it is called, was watched with deep and various so- 
licitude. The ancient Thebans, who first cultivated astro- 
nomy in E^ypt, determined the length of the year by the 
number of its risings. The Egyptians watched its rising 
with mingled apprehensions of hope and fear; as it was 
ominous to them of agricultural prosperity or blighting 
drought. It foretold to them the rising of the Nile, which 
they called Siris, and admonished them when to sow. The 
Romans were accustomed vearlv, to sacrifice a dog to Sirius 
to render liim propitious m his influence upon tnen herds and 
fields. The eastern nations generally believed the rising of 
Siiius would be productive of great heat on the earth. 

Thus Virgil :— 

■ " Turn steriles exurere Sirius agros : 

Ardebant herbse, et victum seges eegra negabat" 

— — " Parched was the grass, and blighted was the com : 
Nor 'scape the beasts ; for Sirius, from on high. 
With pestilential heat infects the sky." 

Accordingly, to that season of the year when Sirius rose 
with the sun and seemed to blend its own influence with the 
heat of that luminary, the ancients gave the name of Dog- 
days, (Dies Canicidares). At that remote period the Dog- 
days commenced on the 4th of August, or four days after the 
summer solstice, and lasted forty days or until the 14th of 
September. At present the Dog-days begin on the 3d of 
July, and continue to the 11th of August, being one day less 
than the ancients reckoned. 

Hence, it is plain that the Dog-days of the moderns have no 
reference whatever to the rising of Sinus, or any oiner star, 
because the time of their rising is perpetually accelerated by 
the precession of the equinoxes : they have reference then 
only to the summer solstice which never changes its position 
in respect to the seasons. 

Hmo long is light in coming from Siriiis to the earth ? Suppose this star were nmo to 
he blotted from the heavens, how long before its twinkling would expire ? How was the 
risin? of Sirius regarded in the remote ages of the world? What use was made of it 
by the ancient Thebans? How did the Egyptians regard It, and for what rea.sonJ 
WTiatdid it foretel to them? What did the Romans offer in sacrltice to Sirius annuali/1 
Why? How was it regarded by the eastern nations generally? What sea.son of the 
year did the ancients call Dogdays 7 When did these begin, and how long did they 
bsi7 At present, when do they begin and end » Have our Dog-days any reference t» 
tfee 7V)« star ) 



irtAPIII. I CAMS MAJOR. 73 

The time of Sirius' rising varies with the latitude of the place, and in the same 
latitude, is sensibly changed alter a course of years, on account of the preces- 
sion ai the equinoxes. This enables us, to determine with approximate accu- 
racy, the dates of many events of antiquity, which cannot be well detemjined 
by other records. We do not know, for instance, in what precise period of the 
world Hesiod flourished. Yet he tells us, in liis Opera et Dies, lib. ii. v. 185, that 
Arcturus in his time rose heliacally, 60 days after the winter solstice, which, 
then was in the 9th degree of Aquarius, or 39^^ beyond its present position. Now 
39^ ". 50|^" =2794 years since the time of Hesiod, which corresponds very nearly 
with history. 

When a star rose at sun-setting, or set at sun-rising, it was called the Achroni- 
cal rising or setting. When a planet or star appeared above the horizon just 
before the sun, in the morning, it was called the Heliacal rising of the star; and 
when it sunk below the horizon immediately after the sun, in the evening, it waa 
called the Heliacal setting. According to Ptolemy, stars of the first magnitude 
are seen rising and setting when the sun is 12'-^ below the horizon ; stars of the 
2d magnitude require the .sun's depression to be 13° ; stais of the 3d magnitude, 
.4°, and so on, allowing one degree for each magnitude. The rising and setting 
of the stars described" in this way. since this mode of description often occurs 
in Hesiod, Virgil, Columella, OvidL Pliny, &c. are called poetical rising and set 
ting. They ser\-ed to mark the times of rehgious ceremonies, the seasons al- 
lotted to the several departments of husbandry, and the overflowing cf^ -•''--• 'Nile 

The student may be perplexed to understand how the 
Dog-star, which he seldom sees till mid-winter, should be 
associated with the most fervid heat of summer. This is 
explained by considering that this star, in summer, is over 
our heads in the doytime, and in the lower hemisphere at 
night. As " thick the floor of heaven is inlaid with patines 
of bright gold," by day, as by night : but on account of the 
superior splendour of the sun, we cannot see them, 

Sirius is situated nearly S. of Alhena, in the feet of the 
Twins, and about as far S". of the equinoctial as Alhena is 
N. of it. _ It is about lO^* E. of the Hare, and 26° S. of Be- 
telguese in Orion, with which it forms a large equilateral 
triangle. It also forms a similar triangle with Phaet in the 
Dove, and Naos in the Ship. These two triangles being joined 
at their vertex in Sirius, present the figure of an enonuous 
X, called by some, the Egyptian X. Sirius is also pointed 
out by the direction of the Three Stars in the belt of Orion. 
Its distance from them is about 23°. It comes to the meri- 
dian at 9 o'clock on the 11th of February. 

Mirzam, in the foot of the Dog, is a star of the 2d magni- 
tude, D^° W. of Sirius. A little above, and 4° or 5° to the 
left, there are three stars of the 3d ani 4th magnitudes, form- 
ing a triangular figure somewhat resembling a dog's head. 



What is meant by the Achronical rising and setting of the stars ? IVhat, by thetf 
MHeliacal rising and setting 7 By whom were the terms thus applied, and what wera 
^hest risings and settings called ? WhaX did they serve ? Explain how it is, that the 
bog-star, which is seldom seen till mid-winter, should be associated with the most 
■erviil heat of summer. Are there as many stars over our head in the daytime as in 
.he ni?ht? Describe the situation of Sirius. What is its position with regard to Be- 
lelguese and Procyon, and In connexion with them what ti^nire di^es It form? With 
what other stars does it form a similar triangle? What is the appearance of these tw« 
kriangles taken together? How else is Sirius pointed out? Describe the position and 
■ — gnitude of Mirzam. What stars mark the head of the Dogi 

7 



74 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | MAt. 

The brightest of them, on the left, is called Muliphen. It 
entirely disappeared in 1670, and was not seen again for 
more than 20 years. Since that time it has maintained a 
steady lustre. 

Wesen is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, in 
the back, 11° S. S. E, of Sirius, with which, and Mirzam in 
the paw, it makes an elongated triangle. The fvvo hinder 
feet are marked by Naos and Lambda, stars of the 3d and 41 h 
magnitudes, situated about 3° apart, and 12° directly S. of 
the fore foot. This constellation contains 31 visible stars, 
including one of the 1st magnitude, four of the 2d, and two 
of the 3d ; all of which are easily traced out by the aid of 
the map. 

HisTOKY. — ^lanilius. a Latin poet who flourished in the Aug:ustan age, wrote 
an admirable poem, in five books, upon the fixed stars in which he thus speaks 
of this constellation: — 

"All others he excels ; no fairer light 
Ascends the skies, none sets so clear and bright." 
But EuDOSiA best describes it : — 

" Next shines the Dog with sixty-four distinct ; 
Fam'd for pre-eminence in envied song, 
Theme oi Homeric and Virgilian lays : 
His fierce mouth flames with dreaded Sirius ; 
Three of his stars retire with feeble beams." 
Accordmg to some mythologists, this constellation represents one of Orion i 
hounds, which was placed in the sky, near this celebrated huntsman. Others 
say it received its name in honour of the dog given by Aurora to Cephalua, 
which surpassed in speed all the animals of hisspecies. Cephalus, it is said at- 
tempted to prove this by running him against a fox, which, at that time, was 
thouglit to be the fleetest of all animals. After they had nm tosether a long 
time without either of them obtaining the victory, it is said that Jupiter was so 
much gratified at the fleetness of the dog that he assigned him a place in the 
heavens. , 

But the name and form of this constellation are, no doudt, derived from the 
Egyptian.?, who, carefully watched its rising, and by it judged of the swellin2 of 
the Nile, which they called Siris, and, in their hieroglyphical manner of writing, 
since it was as it were the sentinel and watch of the vear, represented it under 
the figure of a dog. They observed that when Sirius oecame visible in the east, 
Tust before the morning dawn, the overflowing of the Nile immediately followed. 
Thus it warned them, like a faithful dog, to escane fi^om the region of the inun 
dation. 



CHAPTER V. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON 
THE MERIDIAN IN MARCH. 

ARGO NAVIS. 

The ship Argo. — This constellation occupies a large space 

in the southern hemisphere, though but a small part of it can 

Which is the brightest of these, and what remarkable circumstance in Its history* 
How has it appeared since its return ? Describe the situation and magnitude of Wesem 
"What stars mark the hinder feet? What is the number of visible stars in this co»- 
stellatlCD ' Describe the constellation Argo Navis J 



Mi.V III ARGO NAVIS. 75 

be seen in the United States. , It is situated S. E. of Canis 
Major, and may be kno^m by the stars in the prow and deck 
at the ship. 

If a straight line joining Betelguese and Sirius, be produ- 
ced 18° to the southeast, it will point out Naos, a star of the 
2d magnitude, in the rowlock of the ship. This star is m 
the S. E. corner of the Egyptian X., and of the large equi- 
lateral triangle made by itself with Sirius and the Dove. 
When on the meridian, it is seen from this latitude about 8'^ 
above the southern horizon. It comes to the meridian on the 
3d of March, about half an hour after Procyon, and continues 
visible but a few hours. 

Gamma, in the middle of the ship, is a star of the 2d mag- 
nitude, about 7° S. of Naos, a-nd just skims above the south- 
ern horizon for a few minutes, and then sinks beneath it. 
The principal star in this constellation is called, after one of 
the pilots, Canopus ; it is of the 1st magnitude, 36^ nearly 
S. of Sirius, and comes to the meridian 17 minutes after it ; 
but having about 53° of S. declination, it cannot be seen in 
the United States. The same is true of Miaplacidus, a star 
of the 1st magnitude in the oars of the ship, about 25° E. of 
Canopus, and 61° S. of Alphard, in the heart of Hydra. 

An obserrer in the northern hemisphere, can see the stars as many degrees 
)uth of ihe equinoctial in the southern hemisphere, as his own latitude lacks 
of 90^, and no more. 

Marhpb, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the prow of the 
ship, and may be seen from this latitude, 16° S. E. of Sirius, 
and about 10° E. of Wesen, in the back of the Dog. This 
star may be known by its forming a small triangle with two 
others of the same magnitude, situated a little above it. on 
the E., 3° and 4° apart. 

This constellation contains 64 stars, of which, two are of 
the 1st magnitude, four of the 2d, and nine of the 3d. Most 
of these are too low down to be seen in the United States. 

History. — ^This constellation is intended to perpetuate the memory of tha 
famous ship which carried Jason and his 54 companions to Colchis, when they 
resolved upon the perilous expedition of recovering the golden fleece. The de- 
rivation of the word Argo has been oHen disputed. Some derive it from Argos, 
supposmg that this was the name of the person who first proposed the e.Kpedi- 
tion. and built the ship. Otliers maintain th it it was built at Argos. whence its 
name. Cicero calls it Argo, because it carried Grecians, commonly called Ar- 
gives. Diodorus derives the word from , whicii signifies sicift. Ptolemy 

says, but not truly, that Hercules built the ship an<l called it Argo. after a son oi 
Jason, who bore the same name. This ship had fifty oars, and being thus p'-o- 
pelkd must have fallen far short of the bulk of the smallest ship craft used Ly 

Where i.-? it situatedl Point out the situation of Naos, in the ship? When niav it b6 
Been in this latitude? When is it on the meriiiian? Describe the position and liiaJml- 
lude of Gamma. What are the situation and name of the principal star in this ronstel- 
lationi Why can it not be seen fn the United States? Is anv other consldenb.c star 
in the ship similarly situated? Describe Markeb. How may this star be known ' Whal 
.s the number of visible stars hi this constellalion? Whal is the magr tude nf its prin- 
cipal ones 1 



6 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [MAR 

modems. It is even said that the crew were able to carry it on their bacsa 
Irom the Danube to the Adriatic. 

According to many authors, she had a beam on her prow, cut in the forest of 
Dondona by Minerva, which had the power of giving oracles to the Argonauts. 
Tiiis ship was the first, it is said, that ever ventured on the sea. After the erp^- 
dition was finished, and Jason had returned in triumph, he ordered her to be 
drawn ashore at the isthmus of Corinth, and consecrated to Nepune, the god ol 
the sea. 

Sir Isaac Newton endeavours to settle the period of this expedition at about 30 

J ears before the destruction of Troy ; and 43 years after the death of Solomon. 
)r. Bryant, however, rejects the history of the Argonautic expedition as a mere 
fiction of the Greeks, and supposes that this group of stars, which the poela de- 
nominate Ar20 Navis, refers to Noah's ark and the deluge, and that the fable of 
the Argonautic expedition, is founded on certain Etryptian traditions tnat related 
to the preservation of Noah and his family during the flood. 



CANCER. 

The Crab, is now the fifth constellation and fourth sign 
of the Zodiac. It is situated in the ecliptic, between Leo on 
the E. and Gemini on the W. It contains 83 stars, of which, 
one is of the 3d, and seven of the 4th magnitude. Some 
place the first-mentioned star in the same class with the other 
seven, and consider none larger than the 4th magnitude. 

Beta, is a star of the 3d or 4th magnitude, in the south- 
western claw, 10° N, E. of Procyon, and may be known from 
the fact that it stands alone, or at least has no star of the 
?ame magnitude near it. It is midway between Procyon and 
Acubens. 

Acubens, is a star of similar brightness, in the southeastern 
claw, 10° N. E. of Beta, and nearly in a straight line with it 
and Procyon. An imaginary line drawn from Capella through 
Pollux, will point out Acubens, at the distance of 24° from 
Pollux. It may be otherwise distinguished by its standing 
between two very small stars close by it in the same claw. 

Tegmine, the last in the back, appears to be a small star, 
of between the 5th and 6th magnitudes, 8^° in a northerly 
direction from Beta. It is a treble star, and to be distinctly 
seen, requires very favourable circumstances. Two of them 
are so near together that it requires a telescopic power of 300 
to separate them. 

About 7° northeasterly from Tegmine, is a nebulous 
cluster of very minute stars, in the crest of Cancer, sufli 
ciently luminous to be seen by the naked eye. It is situated 
in a triangular position with regard to the head of the Twins 
and the Little Dog. It is about 20° W. of each. It may 
otherwise be discovered by means of two conspicuous stars 

What is the relative position of Canrer amon^ the .sicrns and constellatlnns of the 
ZiKliac? How is ii situated? What are the nuniU-r ami masnitmle of its stars? WJiere 
is Beta Bitu;Ued, and how may it be known? Which wav from Procyon .Tnd Aciib?ni: 
Descril)e Acubens. What are its distance and direction from Pollux .' How may it oe 
otherwise known? Describe Tepmine. Tliere is a reinarkalile clu.ster in tiiis cop 
ftcllation— describe its pofition liow may it otherwise he discoverer- ' 



ot tae 4th magnitude lying one on either side of it, a( (he dis 
lauce of about 2°, called the northern and southern Asclli. 
By some of the Orientalists, this cluster was denominated 
PrcEsepe, the Manger, a contrivance which their fancy fitted 
up for the accommodation of the Aselli or Asses ; and it is 
so called by modern astronomers. The appearance of this 
nebula to the unassisted eye, is not unlike the nucleus of a 
comet, and .it was repeatedly mistaken for the comet of 1S32, 
which, in the month of November, passed in its neighbour- 
hood. 

The southern Asellus, marked Delta, is situated in the 
line of the ecliptic and in connexion with Wasat and Tejat, 
marks the course of the earth's orbit for a space of 36° from 
the solstitial colure. 

There are several other double and nebulous stars in this 
constellation, most of which are too small to be seen ; and in- 
deed, the whole constellation is less rem.arkable for the bril- 
liancy of its stars than any other in the Zodiac. 

The sun arrives at the sign Cancer about the 21st of June, 
but does not reach the constellation until the 23d of J-uly. 

The mean right ascension of Cancer is 128°. It is conse 
quently on the meridian the 3d of March. 

A few degrees S. of Cancer, and about 17° E. of Procyon, are four stars of the 
4th magnitude, 3° or 4° apart, which mark the head of Hydra. This constella- 
tion will be described on Map III. 

The beginning of the sign Cancer (not the constellation) is called the Tropic 
9f Cancer, and when the sun arrives at this point, it has reached its utmost limit 
of north declination, where it seems to remain stationary a few days, before it 
begins to decline again to the south. This stationary attitude of the sun is called 
the summer solstice ; from two Latin words signifying the sum's standing still. 
The distance from the first point of Cancer to the equinoctial, which at present, 
•s 23° 27§', is called the obliquity of the ecliptic. It is a remarkable and well as- 
certained fact, that this is continually growing less and less. The tropics are 
slowly and steadily approaching the equinoctial, at the rate of about half a second 
every year; so that the sun does not now come so far north of the equator in 
Kumtner. nor decline so far south in winter, as it must have done at the creation, 
by nearly a degree. 

History. — In the Zodiacs of Esne, and Dendera. and in most of the astrological 
remains of Eiiypt, a Scarabaius, or Beetle, is used as the symbol of this sign; 
but in r>ir William Jones's Oriental Zodiac, and in some others found in India, we 
meet with tlie figure of a crab. As the Hindoos, in all probability, derived their 
knowledge of the stars from the Chaldeans, it is supposed that tlie figure of the 
crab, in this place, is more ancient than the Beetle. 

la some eastern representations of this sign, two animals, like asses, are found 
in this division of the Zodiac; and as the Chaldaic name for the ass may oe 
translated muddiness, it is supposed to allude to the discolouring of he Nile, 
which river was rising when tlie sun entered Cancer. The Greeks, in copying 
"lis sign, have placed two asses as the appropriate symbol of it, which stiU re 

"Wluit is the name of this cluster? What is its appearance to the naked eye, and for 
what has it been mistaken? How is the star called the soiuhern Aseuus. situated, 
with respect to the ecliptic? What other stars in this constellation? At what time 
ices the sun enter the si^n Cancer? At what time the constellation? Where ia tfu 
tropic of Cancer situated! When the sun reaches tliis point what is said of its d*' 
tlination ? Wliat is this stationaru attitude of the sun called ? Hliat is the obliquUg 
of the ecliptic? What remarkable factin respect to thi^ distanced Doe? ^lisa^^Jht 
itabUity of the tropics. 



78 PICTURE OF THE HEAVE <S. [aI'KIU 

tn&in. Tney explain their reason, however, for adopting this figure, by sayinj 
that these are the animals that assisted Jupiter in his victory over the giants. 

Dopuis accounts for the origin of the asses in the following words :— Le Can- 
cer, ou sont les etoiles appellees Ijs ianes, forme I'lmpreinte du paviUon d' Is- 
eachar que Jacob assimile a I'ane. . 

Mythologists give ditferent accoi nts of the origin of this constellation. The 
prevailing opinion is, that while Hercules wjis engaged in his famous contest 
with the dreadful Lernaean monster, Juno, envious of the fame of his achieve- 
ments, sent a sea-crab to bite and annoy the hero's feet, but the crab being soon 
despatched, the goddess to reward its services, placed it among the constella- 
lions. 

"The Scorpion's claws here clasp a wide extent, 
And here the Crab's in lesser clasps are bent." 



CHAPTER VI. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH AB^. ON 
THE MERIDIAN IN APRIL. 

LKO. 

The Lion. — This is one of the most brilliant constellations 
in the winter hemisphere, and contains an unusual number 
of very bright stars. It is situated next E. of Cancer, and 
directly S. of Leo Minor and the Great Bear. 

The Hindoo Astronomer, Varaha, says, " Certainly the southern solstice was 
once in the middle of Asleha {Leo) ; the northern in the first degree of Dhan- 
ishta" (Aquarius). Since that time, the solstitial, as well as the equinoctial 
points, have gone backwards on the ecliptic 75^- This divided by SOf", gives 
5373 years ; which carry us baclv to the year of the world 4&4. Sir W. Jones, 
says, that Varaha lived when the solstices were in the first degrees of Cancer 
and Capricorn , or about 400 years before the Christian era. 

Leo is the Jifth sign, and the si.vth constellation of the Zo- 
diac. The mean right ascension of this extensive group is 
150°, or 10 hours. Its centre is therefore on the meridian the 
6th of April, Its western outline, however, comes to the 
meridian on the 18th of March, while its eastern limit doe.s 
not reach it before the 3d of May. 

This constellation contains 95 visible stars, of which two 
are of the 1st magnitude, two of the 2d, six of the 3d, and 
fifteen of the 4th. 

"Two splendid stars of highe.st dignify, 
Two of the second class the Lion boasts, 
And justly figures the fierce sununer's rage.' 

The principal star in this constellation is of the 1st mag- 
nitude, situated in the brea«:t of the animal, and named Be- 
gulus, from the illustrious Roman consul of that name. 

"What is the general appearance of the constellntion Leo? Where is it situated* 
What is the relative order among the sl-rns ami ci)n.stellations of the Zodi.ic? "Wh:u is 
the riirht ascension of Loo, and when is its centre on the meridian? When do the 
outlines of the figure come to ihi^ meridian ? What nnuiher of visible stars does it con 
tain, and how large are the prinnpal ones? What is the name V •* « first star in the 
orwsteJlation, and whence is it derived^ 



«1A.P IV. j l.EO. /9 

It is situated almost exactly in \he ecliptic, and may be 
readily distinguished on account of its superior brilliancy. It 
IS the largest an-d loAvest of a group of five cir six bright 
stars which form a figure somewhat resembling a sickle, in 
the neck and shoulder of the Lion. There is a little star of 
the 5th magnitude about 2° S. of it, and one of the 3d mag- 
nitude 5° N. of it, which will serve to point it out. 

Regulus is the brightest star in the constellation, except 
Denebola, in the tail, 25° E. of it. Great use is made of Re- 
gulus by nautical men, for determining their longitude at sea. 
Its latitude, or distance from the ecliptic, is less than ^°; but 
its declination, or distance from the equinoctial is nearly 
13^ N. ; so that its meridian altitude will be just equal to that 
of the sun on the 19th of August. Its right ascension is very 
nearly 150°. It. therefore culminates about 9 oc.ock on the 
6th of April. 

'When Regulus is on the meridian, Castor and Pollux are seen about 40^ N. 
W. of it, and the two stars in the Little Dog. are about the same distance in a S 
W. direction; with which, and the two former, it makes a large isosceles tri- 
angle whose vertex is at Regulus. 

The next considerable star, is 5° N. of Regulus, marked 
Eta. situated in the collar ; it is of between the 3d and 4th 
magnitudes, and, with Regulus, constitutes the handle of the 
sickle. Those three or four stars of the 3d magnitude, N. and 
W, of Eta, arching round with the neck of the animal, de- 
scribe the blade. 

Al Gieha, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, situated in 
the shoulder, 4° in a N. E. direction from Eta, and may be 
easily distinguished by its being the brightest and middle 
one of the three stars lying in a semicircular form, curving 
towards the west ; and it is the first in the blade of the sickle. 

Adhafera, is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the 
neck, 40 N. of Al Gieha, and may be known by a very mi- 
nute star just below it. This is the second star in the blade 
of the sickle. 

Ras al Asad, situated before the ear, is a star of the ?;i or 
4th magnitude, 6° W. of Adhafera, and is the third in the 
blade of the sickle. The next star, Epsilon, of the s.me 
magnitude, situated in the head, is 2-}° S. W. of Ras al A )ad, 
and a little within the curve of the sickle. About mid ray 

Describe the situation of Rejoilus. What other stars serve to point it out 1 W»at is 
Is comparative brightness? What use is made of it in nautical astronomy? Whutare 
ts latitude ami declination? On what day will Regulus culminate at 9 o'clock in the 
Evenins?? Wlien is it on the meridian, tvith what stars does it form a large tnang-U, 
znd in what direciion are theyfrofm it! What are the name and positior of the next 

Iiiisiderable sUir in its vicinity? What sUirs fonn the blade of the sickle? Where ig 
1 Gieha situated, and how may it be distinsniished? AV'hat is the positi^i ^f A.dhafen 



80 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [aPRIL. 

betwettn these, and a little to the E., is a very small star 
hardly visible to the naked eye. 

Lambda^ situated in the mouth, is a star of the 4th magni- 
tude, 3^0 S. W. of Epsilon, and the xast in the sickle's point. 
Kappa, situated in the nose, is another star of the same 
magnitude; and about as far from Lambda as Epsilon. Epsiloa 
and Kappa are about 5|o apart, and form the longest side of 
a triangle, whose vertex is in Kappa. 

Zozma, situated in the back of the Lion, is a star of the 
2d magnitude, 18° N. E. of Regulus, and midway between 
it and Coma Berenices, a fine cluster of small stars, 18^ N. 
E. of Zozma. 

Theta, situated in the thigh, is another star of the 3d mag- 
nitude, 5° directly S. of Zozma, and so nearly on the same 
meridian that it culminates but one minute after it. This star 
makes a right angled triangle with Zozma on the N. and 
Denebola on the E., the right angle being at Theta. 

Nearly in a straight line with Zozma, and Theta, and 
south of them, are three or four smaller stars, 4° or 5"^ apart, 
which mark one of the legs. 

Denebola, is a bright star of the 1st magnitude, in the 
brush of the tail, 10° S. E. of Zozma, and may be distin- 
guished by its great brilliancy. It is 5° W. of the equinoc- 
tial colure, and comes to the meridian 1 hour and 41 minutes 
after Regulus, on the 3d of May ; when its meridian altitude 
is the same as the sun's at 12 o'clock the next day. 

When Denebola is on the meridian, Regulus is seen 25° \V. of it, and Phad, 
In the square of Ursa Major, bears 39° N. of it. It forms, with these two, a large 
right angled triangle ; the right angle being at Denebola. It is so nearly on the 
same meridian with Phad that it culminates only four minutes before it." 

Denebola is 35^° W. of Arcturus, and about the same dis- 
tance N. W. of Spica Virginis, and forms, with them, a 
large equilateral triangle on the S. E. It also forms with 
Arcturus and Cor Caroli a similar figure, nearly as large on 
the N. E. These two triangles, being joined at their base, 
constitute a perfect geometrical figure of the forms of a Rhom- 
bus : called by some, the Diamond of Virgo. 

A line drawn from Denebola through Regulus, and continued 7° or 8° further 
in the same direction, will point out A't and Omicron, of the 3d and 4th magni- 
. tudes, situated in the fore claws, and about 3° apart. 



What star is next? Describe the position of Lamlxla? What are the situation and 
magniluae of Kappa? What is the distance between Ep.silon ami Kappa? Describe the 
position of Zozma? What are the magnimde and position of Theta? What geometri- 
cal figure may be formed with this star, Zjozma. and Denebola? What stars in this 
neiehbourhood mark one of the legs of Leo? Describe Denebola? How far is it from 
the^equinoctial colure, and when does it come to the meridian? When Denebola is on 
the meridian, toiiat geometrical Jigure does it form, in connexion with Reg~uhn> and 
Phad ? With what other star w it nearly on the same meridian ? What is tin* position 
of Denebola in regard to Arctums and Spica Virginis, and what figure does it form 
with them? With what other stars does Denebola form a similar figure? What large 
geometrica figure is formed by thase two »«iangles? U'?ia: stars point out thost in tht 
fcre claws ? 



MAP IV. 1 LEO. 81 

There are a number ol other stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes in this con- 
Btellalion, which require no description, as the scholar will easily trace them out 
from the map. The position of Regulus and Denebola are often referred to in 
the geography of the heavens, as they serve to point out other clusters in the 
sauie neighbourhood. 

History. — According to Greek fable, this Lion represents the formidable ani 
mal which infested the forests of Nemasa. It was slain by Hercules, and placed 
by Jupiter among the stars in commemoration of the di-eadful conflict. Soma 
writers have apphed the story of the twelve labours of Hercules to the progress 
of the sun through the twelve signs of the ecliptic; and as the combat of that 
celebrated hero with the Lion was his first labour, they have placed Leo as the 
firsl sign. The figure of the Lion was, however, on the Egyptian charts long 
Defore the invention of the fables of Hercules. It would seem, moreover, ac- 
cording to the fable itself, that Hercules, who represented the sun, actually sle-fl 
the Nemaean Lion, because Leo was already a zodiacal sign. 

In hieroglyphical writing, the Lion was an emblem of violence and fury ; and 
the representation of this animal in the Zodiac, signified the intense heat occsi- 
sloned by the sun when it entered that part of the ecliptic. The Egyptians were 
uiucli annoyed by hons during the heat of summer, as they at that season, left 
tlie desert, and hunted the banks of the Nile, which had then reached its greatest 
elevation. It was therefore natural for their astronomers to place the Lion where 
we find him in the zodiac. 

The figure of Leo, very much as we now have it, is in all the Indian and Egvp- 
thu Zodiacs. The overflowing of the Nile, which was regularly and anxiously 
expected every year by the Egyptians, took place when the sun was in this sign. 
They therefore paid more attention to it, it is to be presumed, than to any other. 
This was the principal reason. Mr. Green supposes, why Leo stands first in the 
aodiacs of Dendera. 

The circular zodiac, mentioned in our account of Aries, and which adorned 
the ceiling in one of the inner rooms in the famous temple in that city, was 
brought away en masse in 1S21, and removed to Paris. On its arrival at the Louvre, 
It was purchased by the king for 150,000 francs, and, after being exhibited there 
for a year, was »>>aced in one of the halls of the hbrary, where it is now to be 
seen in apparently perfect preservation. This most interesting rehc of astrology, 
after being cut away from the ruins where it was found, is about one foot thick, 
and eight feet square. The rock of which it is composed, is sandstone. On the 
face oT this stone, appears a large square, enclosing a circle four feet in diame- 
ter, in which are arranged in an" irregular spiral line, the zodiacal constellations, 
commencing with the sign Leo. On each side of this spiral line are placed a 
great variety of figures. These are supposed to represent otlier constellationSj 
tliougii they bear no analogy, in form, to those which we now have. Many of 
these figures are accompanied with hieroglyphics, which probably express their 
names. The commentator of ChampoUion, from whom we have derived many 
Interesting facts in relation to them, has furnished merely a general history of 
their origin and purpose, but does not add particulars. Copies of these draw'ines 
and characters, have been exhibited in this country, and the wonderful conclu- 
sions that have been drawn from them, have excited much astonishment. 

Compared with our present planispheres, or with stellar phenomena, it abounds 
with contradictory and irrelevant matter. So far from proving what was strenvK 
Hisly maintained "by infidel writers, soon after its discovery, that the Grreks 
took from it the model of their zodiac, which they have transmitted to us, il 
seems to demonstrate directly the reverse. The twelve signs, it is true, are 
there, but they are not in their proper places. Cancer is between Leo and the 
pole ; Virgo bears no proportion to the rest ; some of the signs are placed double ; 
they are all out of the ecliptic, and by no means occupy those regular and equal 
portions of space which Egyptian astronomers are said to have exactly measuied 

7 means of their clepsydra. 

Tlio figures, without what may be termed the zodiacal circle, could never have 
Included the same stars in the heavens which are now circumscribed by the 
figures of the constellations. Frofessor Green is of opinion, tha. the small 
apartment in the ruins of Dendera, which was mysteriously ceiled with this zo- 
diac, was used for the purposes of judicial astrology, and that the sculptured 
figures upon it were employed in horoscopical predictions, and in that casting of 
nativities for which the Egyptians were'so famous. 

Why is the position of Regulus and Denebola often referred to 7 



82 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | APRIU 

In the Hebrew Zodiac, Leo is assigned to .Tudah, on whopo standard, according 
to ail traditions, a Lion is painted. This is clearly intimated in numerous passa- 
ges of the Hebrew writings : Ex. — " Judah is a Lion's whelp ; he stoopeth dowa. 
he croucheth as a Lion ; and as an old Lion ; who shall rouse him up V Gen 
xlix. 9 "The Lion of the tribe of Judah hath prevailed." Rev. v. 5. 



LEO MINOR. 

The Little Lion. — This constellation was formed by 
Hevelius, out of the Stellce informes, or unformed stars of 
the ancients, which lay scattered between the Zodiacal con- 
stellation Leo, on the S. and Ursa Major, on the N. Its mean 
right ascension is the same with that of Regulus, and it 
comes to the meridian at the same time on the 6th of April. 

The modern constellations, or those which have been added to our celestial 
maps since the adoption of the Greek notation, in 1603. are referred to by the 
letters of the English alphabet, instead of the Greek. This is the case in re<rard 
to Leo Minor, and all other constellations whose origin is subsequent to that 
period. 

Leo Minor contains 53 stars, including only one of the 3d 
magnitude, and 5 of the 4th. The principal star is situated 
in the body of the animal, 13° N. of Gamma Leonis,* in a 
straight line with Phad, and may be known by a group of 
smaller stars, a little above it on the N. W. 

It forms an equilateral triangle with Gamma and Delta Leonis, the vertex being 
In Leo Minor. This star is marked with the letter /, in modern catalogues, and 
being the r>rincipal representative of the constellation, is itself sometimes called 
the Little Lion ; 8° E. of this star (the Little Lion) are two stars of the 4th mag- 
nitude, m the last paw of Ursa Major, and about 10° N. W. of it, are two other 
stars of the 3d magnitude, in the first hind paw. 

"The Smaller Lion now succeeds ; a cohort 
Of fifty stars attend his steps; 
And three, to sight unarm'd, invisible." 



SEXTANS. 

The Sextant, called also Urania's Sextant,! is a modern 
constellation that He^-^elius made out of the unformed stars of 
the ancients, which lay scattered between the Lion, on the 
N., and Hydra, on the S. 

It contains 41 veiy small stars, including only one as large 

* Leottl'i is the genitive, or possessive case of Leo, an<1 Gamma Leonis mrnns rhe 
Gamma of Leo. Thus also the principal star in Aries is marked Alpha Arietis. mean- 
ing the Ali)ha of Aries, &c. 

t Urania was one of the muses, and daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She pre- 
sided over astronomy. She was represented as a youn2 vir?in. dressed In an aziire- 
coioured rohe, crowned with stars, holding a robe in her hands, and having many 
mathematical instmments about her. 

What is th"^ origin of Leo Minor, and how is it situated? What Is its mean right a»- 
cension? When is it on the meridian? What are the number and ma?nitiii1e of lt» 
stars? What is the position of the principal star in tjiis ronstellation, and how may U 
be knosvn ! What figxire doe« iifnmi irirh sorne other 8far» I What letter rej^re^enU 
thin star, and what elte is it called 1 What ne^ilfr do T-e Jlrtd irt thin c on sr flint ion f 
Whai are the origin and position of the Sextant .' How many suirs does it contain > 



MAP IV. 1 HYDRA AND THE CUP. 83 

as Ttie 4th magnitude. Tliis is situated very near the equi- 
uoctial, 13° S. of Regulus, and comes to the meridian about 
the same time on the 6th of April. The other stars in this 
constellation are too small to engage attention. A few of the 
largest of them may be traced out from the map. 

History. — A sextant, in mathematics, is the sixth part of a circle, or an arct 
comprehending 60 degrees. But tlie term is more particularly used to denote 
an astronomical instrument well known to mariners. Its use is the same as that 
of the qnadi'ant; namely, to measure the angular distance, and take the altitude 
»f tlie sun, moon, planets, and fixed stars. It is indispensable to the mariner in 
finding the latitude and longitude at sea, and should be in the hands of every 
surveyor and practical engineer. It may serve the purpose qf a theodolite, m 
measuring inaccessible heights and distances. It may gratify the young pupil to 
know, that by means of such an instrument, well adjusted, and ^vlth a clear eye 
and a steady hand, he could readily tell, within a few hundi'ed yards, how far 
north or south of tlie equator he was, and that from any quarter of the world, 
known or unknown. This constellation is so called, on accouHt of a supposed 
resemblance to this instrument. 



HYDRA AND THE CUP. 

H^DRA, THE Water Serpent, is an extensive constella- 
tion, winding from E. to W. in a serpentine direction, over 
a space of more than 100 degrees in length. It lies south of 
Cancer, Leo, and Virgo, and reaches almost from Canis Mi 
nor to Libra. It contains sixty stars, including one of the 2d 
magnitude, three of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. 

Alphard, or Cor Hydrce^ in the heart, is a lone star of the 
2d magnitude, 23° S. S. W. of Regulus, and comes to the 
meridian at the same time with Lambda, in the point of the 
sickle, about 20 minutes before 9 o'clock on the 1st of April. 
There is no othei considerable star near it, for which it can 
be mistaken. An imaginary line drawn from Gamma Leonis 
through Regulus. will point out Cor Hydrse, at the distance 
of 23°. 

The head of Hydra may be distinguished by means of four 
stars of the 4th magnitude, 2^° and 4° apart, situated 6° S. of 
Acubens, and forming a rhomboidal figure. The three upper 
stars in this cluster, form a small arch, and may be kno^vn by 
two very small stars just below the middle one, making with 
it a very small triangle. The three western stars in the head, 
also make a beautiful little triangle. The eastern star in this 
group, marked Zeta, is about 6° directly S. of Acubens, and 
culminates at the same time. 

When Alphard is on the meridian, AJkes, of the 4th mag- 
ni'^ude, situated in the bottom of the Cup, may be seen 24° 

What is the position of the hirpest one? Describe the situation and extent of the 
constellation Hydni. What are the number and magnitude of its stars ? Desi'ribe the 
position and muirnitude of Alphard. What are the disUmce and direction of Cor Hy- 
IrsB from Ganmia Leonis ? How may the head of Hvdra be distinmiished ? T^h i\v may 
the three upper stars in this cluster be known? Which stars form a beautiful Uttls 
triangle? How is Alkes situated, and when may it be seen? 



84 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | AFKIU 

S. E. of it, and is distinguished by its forming an equilateral 
triangle with Beta and Gamma, stars of the same magnitude, 
(')0 S. and E. of it. Alkes is common both to Hydra and 
the Cup. Beta, on the S., is in Hydra, and Gamma, on the 
N. E., is near the middle of the Cup. A line drjlwn from 
Zozma, through Theta Leonis, and continued 885° directly 
S. will reach Beta; it is therefore on the same meridian, and 
will culminate at the same time on the 23d of April. 

The Cup itself, called also the Crater^ may be easily dis- 
tinguished by means of six stars of the 4th magnitude, form- 
ing a beautiful crescent, or semicircle, opening to the W. The 
centre of this group is about 15° below the equinoctial, and 
directly S. of the hinder feet of Leo. The crescent form of 
the stars in the Cup is so striking and well defined, when the 
moon is absent, that no other description is necessary to point 
them out. Its centre comes to the meridian about two hours 
after Alphard, on the same evening ; and consequently, it 
culminates at 9 o'clock, one month after Alphard does. The 
remainder oi the stars in this constellation may be easily 
traced by aid 6^ the map. 

When the head of Hydra is on the meridian, its other ex- 
tremity is many degrees below the horizon, so that its whole 
length cannot be traced out in the heavens until its centre, 01 
the Cup, is on the meridian. 

" Near the equator rolls 

The sparkling Hydra, proudly eminent 

To drink the Galaxy's refulgent sea ; 

Nearly a fourth of the encircling curve 

Which girds the ecliptic, his vast folds involve ; 

Yet ten the number of his stars diffused 

O'er the long track of his enormous spires : 

Chief beams his heart, sure of the second rank, 

But emulous to gain the first." — Eudosia. 
History. — The astrok^ers of the east, in dividing the celestial nosts into vari- 
ous compartments, assigned a popular and allegorical meaning to each. Thus 
the sign Zeo, which passes the meridian about midnight, when the sun is in 
Pisces, was called the House of the Lions, Leo being the domicil of Sol. 

The introduction of two serpents into the constellations of the ancients, had its 
origin, it is supposed, in the circumstances that the polar one represented the 
oblique course of the stars, while the Hydra, or Great Snake, in the southern 
hemisphere, symbolized the moon's course: hence the A'ot/es are called the 
Dragon's head and tail, to this day. 

The hydra was a terrible monster, which, according to mythologists, infested 
the neighbourhood of the lake Lerna, in the Peloponnesus. It had a hundred 
hearts, according to Diodorus ; fifty, according to Simonides ; and nine, accord- 
ing to the more commonly received opinion of Apollodorus, Hyginus, and others. 
As soon as one of these heads was cutotT, two immediately grew up if the wound 
was not stopped by fire. 

If Alkes be situated in the Cup, why is \i also included in Hydra? How are the other 
two stars that make a triangle with Alkes, situated ? How is Beta situated with respect 
to Zozma and Theta Leonis ? When is Bf ui on the meridian ? How may the Cup be 
distin^njished? How is the centre of thii group situated with respect to Leo and the 
equinoctial? What single circumstance is sulficient to designate the stars in the Cuj)! 
When is it on the meridian? When the head of Hydra is on the meridian, where ii 
the other xti«mity of the constellation ? 



MAP. VI.] URSA MAJOR. 85 

"Art .1 » 1 rroportion'd to the hydra's lenglh, 
Who, by Tiit. wounds, received augmenied strength t 
He raisoO u hundred hissing heads in air, 
When ore I lopp'd, up sprang a dreadi'ul pair." 
Tf destroy th's dreadfa.: monster, was one of the labours of Hercuies, and 
this he easily effected wilt tho assistance of lolaus. who applied a burning iron 
to the wounds as soon as one head was cut off. While Hercules was destroying 
the hydra, Juno, jealous of his glory, seat a sea-crab to bite his foot. This new 
enemy was soon despatched; i^nd Juno was unable to succeed in her attempts 
to lessen the fame of Hercules. The conqueror dipped his arrows in the gall of 
he hydra, which ever after rendered the wounds inflicted with tliem incurable 
ind mortal. 

This fable of the many-headed hjdra may be understood to mean nothing more 
han that the marshes of Lernawcro infested with a multitude of serpents, which 
seemed to multiply as fast as they wera destroyed. 



CHAPTER VII. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE C0NS1£LLATI0NS WHICH ARE ON 
THE MERIDIAN IN MAY. 

URSA MAJOR. 

The Great Bear. — This great constellation is situated 
between Ursa Minor on the north, and Leo Minor on the 
south. It is one of the most noted and conspicuous in the 
northern hemi-sphere. It has been an object of universal ob- 
servation in all ages of the world. The piiests of Belus, and 
the Magi of Persia ; the shepherds of Chaldea, and the Phoe- 
nician navigators^ seem to have been equally struck with its 
peculiar outlines. And it is somewhat remarkable that a re- 
mote nation of American aborigines, the Iroquois, and the 
earliest Arabs of Asia, should have given to the very same 
constellation the name of " Great Bear." when there had 
probably never been any communication between them ; aiid 
when the name itself is so perfectly arbitrary, there being no 
resemblance whatever to a bear, or to any other animal. 

It is readily distinguished from all others by means of a 
remarkable cluster of seven bright stars, forming what is 
familiarly termed the Dipper, or Ladle. In some parts of 
England it is called " Charles's Wain," or wagon, from its 
fancied resemblance to a wagon drawn by three horses in a 
hne. Others call it the Plough. The cluster, however, is 
more frequently put for the whole constellation, and called, 
simply, the Great Bear. But we see no reason to reject the 

How is Ursa Major situated? How has it always been regarded i What people 
seem to have been peculiarly struck with its splendour? What remarkable clr- 
cimistance respectini; its name? Is there any resemblance between the outlines of 
this constellation and the figure of a bear? By what is this constellation readily dis- 
tintniished from all others? By what other names is the Dipper called? What is this 
duster more frequently called i 

8 



8G PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [mAY. 

very appropriate appellation of the shepherds, for the resem- 
Dlance is certainly in favour of the Dipper; the four stars id 
the square forming the bowl, and the other three, the handle. 

"When the Dipper is on the meridian, above the pole, the 
boUom lies towards us, with the handle on the r'g_ 

Benetnasch is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, and is the 
first in the handle. The second, or middle star in the handle. 
IS Mizar, 7° distant from Benetnasch. It may be known by 
means of a very minute star almost touching it, called Alcut\ 
which appears to be double when seen through a telescope, 
and of a silver white. The third star in the handle is called 
Alioth, and is about 4^° W. of Mizar. Alioth is very nearly 
opposite Shedir in Cassiopeia, and at an equal distance from 
the pole. Benetnasch, Mizar, and Alioth, constitute the han- 
dle, while the next four in the square form the bowl of the 
Dipper. 

Five and a half degrees W. of Alioth is the first star in the 
top of the Dipper, at the junction of the handle, called Megrez ; 
it is the smallest and middle one of the cluster, and is used 
in various observations both on sea and land, for important 
purposes.* At the distance of 4^° S, W. of Megrez, is Phad, 
the first star in that part of the bottom, which is next the 
handle. 

The stars in this cluster are so well known, and may be so easily described 
without reference to their relative bearings, that they would rather confuse than 
assist the student, were they given with ever so much accuracy. The scvr-ral 
bearings for this cluster were taken when Megrez was on the meridian, and will 
not apply at any other time, though their respective distances will remain the 
same. 

At the distance of 8° W. of Phad. is the westernmost star 
m the bottom of the Dipper, called Mernk. The bright star 
5° N. of it, towards the pole, is called Dubhe: but these two. 
Merak and Dubhe, are, by common consent, called the Point 
ers, because they always point towards the pole ; for, let the 
line which joins them be continued in the sajne direction 28iJ° 
farther, it will just reach the north pole. 

The names, positions, and relative distances of the stars in 
ttiis cluster, should be well reinembered, as they will be fre- 

* When Me?rez and Caph have the tame altitude, and are seen in the same hort 
zontal line east and west, the polar star Is then at its greatest elongation from the true 
pole of the heavens ; and this is the proper time fcir an observer to take us air.'le of 
elevation, in order to determine the latitude, and its azimuth or angle of declination. 
In order to determine the magnetic variation. 

What, on the whole, is an appropriate appellation for it, and why? Describe the po- 
sition of the Dipper when on the njeridian. Describe the position of Benetna«ch. What 
Is the next star in the Dipper, and h iw may it be known ? Wh.it is the next, or third 
star in the Dipper.' What stars form the bowl and handle of the Dipper? Describe tho 
position and use of Megrez. What star is situated next to Meirrez i Descri'oe the po- 
•ition of Merak and Dubhe. What are these stars called, » nd why? 



MAP VI. I URSA IVLUOR. 87 

quently adverted to. The distance of Dubhe, or the Pomler 
nearest to the north pole, is 2S^°. The distance between the 
two upper stars in the Dipper is 10° ; between the two lower 
ones is 8° : the distance from the brim to the bottom next the 
handle, is 4^°"; between Megrez and Alioth is 5^°; between 
Alioth and Alizar 4^°, and between Mizar and Benetnasch, 7° 

The reason why it is important to have these distances clearly settled in the 
inind is. that these stars, being always in view, and more familiar than any other, 
the student will never fail to have a standard measure before him, which the eye 
tan easily maie use of in determming the distances between other stars. 

The position of Megrez in Ursa Major, and of Caph m 
Cassiopeia, is somewhat remarkable. They are both in the 
equinoctial colure, almost exactly opposite each other, and 
equally distant from the pole. Caph is in the colure, which 
passes through the vernal equinox, and Megrez is in that 
which passes through the autumnal equinox. The latter 
passes the meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 10th of May, and the 
former just six months afterwards, at the same horn:, on the 
lOth of November. 

Psi. in the left leg of Ursa Major, is a star of the 3d mag- 
nitude, in a straight line with Megrez and Phad, distant from 
the latter 12^°. A little out of the same line, 3° farther, is 
another star of the 3d magnitude, marked Epsilon, which 
may be distinguished from Psi, from its fonning a straight 
line with the Two Pointers. 

The right fore paw, and the two hinder ones, each about 
15^ from the other, are several y distinguished by two stars 
of the 4th magnitude, beiween P and 2^ apart. These three 
duplicate stars are nearly in a right line, 20^ S. of, and in a 
direction nearly parallel with, Phad and Dubhe, and are the 
only stars in this constellation that ever set in this latitude. 

There are few other stars of equal brightness with those 
just described, but amidst the more splendid and interesting 
group with which they are clustered, they seldom engage our 
observation. 

The whole number of visible stars in this constellation is 
87 ; of which one is of the 1st, three are of the 2d, seven of 
the 3d, and about tAvice as many of the 4th magnitude. 

History.— Uhsa Major is said to be Calisto, or Helice, daughter of Lycaon, 

"WTiat is the distance of Dubhe from the north pole ? Mention the relative distances 
between the other stars in this group. Why is it important to have the relative di*- 
tance« of these g*^r3fro7n each other loell settled in the mind 1 What is there remark- 
able in the positv ^ of Mesrez, and Caph in Cassiopeia? When do they pass the me- 
ridian? Describt he position of Psi. Where is tpsilon situated, and how may it be 
distinguished? H«. v are the paws of the Bear distinguished? What is the situation 
nf these stars with r. «pect to Phad and Dubhe? What are the only stars in this.con- 
Btellation that ever se in this latitude? What is the whole ntmiber of visible stars in 
this constellation, ant )w many of each magnitude i 



88 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [mAT 

king of A/cadia. She was an attendant of Diana,* and mother of Arvi»s, h> In- 
Dilcr, who placed her among the constellations, after tlie jealousy of Ji»i, • «t 
thanged her into a bear. 

"This said, her hand within her hair she wound, 

Swung lier to earth, and dragg'd her on the ground; 

The prostrate wretch hfts up her hand in prayer; 

Her arms grow shaggy and deform'd with hair, 

Her nails are sharpen'd into pointed claws, 

Her hands bear half her weight, and turn to paws ; 

Her hps, that once could tempt a god, begin 

To grow distorted in an udy grin ; 

And lest the supplicating brute might reach 

The oars of Jove, she was deprived of speech. 

How did she fear to lodge in woods alone, 
And haunt the lields and meadows, once her own ! 
How often would the deep-moiith'd dogs pursue, 
Whilst from her hounds the friglited hunters Hew." — Orid's Met, 
Some suppose that her son Areas, otherwise called Bootes, was changed into 
Ursa Minor, or tlie Little Bear. It is well known, that the ancients represented 
borh these constellations under the ligure of a wagon drawn by a team of horses ; 
hence the appellation of Charles's Wain, or wagon. This is alluded to in the 
Phenomena of Aratus, a Greek poem, from which St. Paul quotes, in his address 
to the Athenians : — 

"The one call'd Helix,! soon as day retires, 
Ob.served with ease, lights up his radiant fires : 

* Diana was the goddess of hunting, and the patroness of modesty and chastity .— 
" The huntress Dian, 
Fair, silver-shafted queen, for ever chaste, 

- — — set at nauglit 

The frivolous bolt of Cupid ; gods and men 
Fear her stern frown, and she was queen o' th' wooils."— Milton. 
T\\e most fiuiious of her temples was that of Ephcsus, near Smyrna, in Asia, which 
was one of the seven wonders of the world. It is related In the Acts of the Apostles, 
that " Demetrius, a silversmith, who made silver shrines for Diana," endeavoured to 
excite opposition to the Christian religion, because " this Paul had persuaded much 
people that they be no gods which are made with hands," and " that the temple of the 
great goddess Diana should be despised, and /ier ma.' nlficence should be destroyed, 
whom all Asia and the world worshippeth. And wheii they heanl these sayinps they 
were full of wrath, and cried out, saying. Great is Diana of the Ephesiuns ! Aiui thus 
they continued shouting for the space of two hours." And again, " When the town 
clerk had appeased the people, he said, Ye men of Ephesus, what mnn Is there that 
knoweth not how that the city of the Ephesians is a wnrnhipper of the great goddess 
Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter?" 

The " imaee which fell down from Jupiter," doubtless alludes to the fable that Juno 
cast her out of heaven, and that Neptune, in pity of her desolate condition, rai.-^ed the 
Island of Delos, from the JSeean sea, for her birth and habitation ; for it was m thi.^ 
island that the twins, Apollo and Diana, were born. Diana is therefore sometimes 
called Delia, from the name of the island that gave her birth. She was represented 
under the figure of a v^ery beautiful virgin, in a hunting dress, a head taller than any 
of her attendant nymphs, with a bow in her hand, a quiver suspended across her 
shoulders, and her forehead ornamented with a silver crescent " which Jews nnght 
kiss and infidels adore." The inhabitants of Taurica sacrificed upon her altars all ih« 
strangers that were shipwrecked upon their coast. The Lacedemonians yearly offer- 
ed her human victims till the age of Lycurgus, who changeii this ^nrharous custom ol 
immolation to flasellation. The Athenians generally offered her goats, while othen 
offered white kids ant* ewes. 

" Haste the sacrifice ; 
Seven bullocks yet unyoked for Phcehus choose, 
And for Diana, seven unspotted ew ^!>:'— Virgil. 
Who does not bow with grateful veneration at hat Christian Intrepidity of St. Paul- 
who ri.sked his life in exposing the delusion and idolatry of the worshippers of the 
goddess Diana ! 

It is a remarkable circumstance, that the temple of Diana was burnt to the ground 
the very day on which Alexander the great was bom l 

t Calisto was a native of the city of Hclice, in Achaia. a district near the bay of Co 
rinth ; hence the Greater Bear is sometimes called Helice :— 
" Nisht on the earth jjour'd darkness ; on the sea. 
The watchful sailor, to Orion's star 
An<i Helice, tum'd heediul."—Apolloniut. 



MAP IV.] COMA BERENICES. 8S 

The other, smaller, and with feebler beams, 
In a less circle drives its lazy teams ; 
But more adapted for the sailor's guide, 
Whene'er, by night, he tempts the briny tide." 
In the Egyptian planispheres of remote antiquity, these two constellatlins are 
represented by tlie figures of bears, instead of wagons ; and the Greeks, who 
derived most of their astronomical symbols from the Egyptians, though thej 
usually altered them to emblems of their o^vn history or superstition, have, nev- 
ertheless, retained the original form of the two bears. It is said by Aratus, that 
the Phenician navigators made use of Ursa Minor in directing their voyages: — 

" Observing this, Phenicians plough the main :" 
while the Greeks confined their observations to Ursa Major. 

Some imagine that the a.ncient Egyptians arranged the stars neat the north 
polB, wthin the outlines of a bear, because the polar regions are the haunts of 
th'c animal, and also because it makes neither extensive journeys nor rapid 
ii:i*---.hes. 

At what period men began to sail by the stars, or who were the first people 
mat did so, is not clear ; but the honour is usually given to the Phenicians. That 
It was practised by the Greeks, as early as the time of the Trojan war, that is, 
about 1200 years B. C, we learn from Homer ; for he says of Ulysses, when 
sailing on his raft, that 

'•Placed at the helm he sate, and mark'd the skies, 
Nor closed in sleep his ever watchful eyes." 
It is rational to suppose that the stars were first used as a guide to travellers 
by land, for we can scarcely imagine that men would venture themselves upon 
the sea by night, before they had first learned some safe and sure method of 
directing their course by land. And we find, according to Diodorus Siculus, that 
travellers in the sandy plains of Arabia were accustomed to direct their course 
by the Bears. 

That people travelled in these vast deserts at night by observing the stars, is 
directly proved by this passage of the Koran : — " God has given you the stars to 
be guides in the dark, both by land and by sea." 



COMA BERENICES. 

Berenice's Hair. — This is a beautiful cluster of small 
stars, situated about 5^ E. of the equinoctial colure, and mid- 
way between Cor Caroli on the northeast, and Denebola on 
the southwest. If a straight line be drawn from Benetnasch 
through Cor Caroli, and produced to Denebola. it will pass 
through it. 

The principal stars are of between the 4th and 5th magn? 
tudes. According to Flamsted, there are thirteen of the 4tK 
magnitude, and according to others there are seren ; but the 
student will find agreeably to his map, that there is apparently 
but o?ie star in this srroup. entitled to that rank, and this is 
situated about 7= S. E. of the main cluster. 

Although it is not fasy to mistake this group for any other 
i 1 the same region ^f the skies, yet the stars, Avhich compose 
it are all so small as to be rarely distinguished in the full pre- 
sence of the moon. The confused lustre of this assemblage 

Describe the appearance and situation of Coma Berenices. What are the masiiituilet 

of the principal stars in this clusterl What are they, according to Flainstoil and 

others ? How many stars of the 4th magnitude will the student find on the map .' Is U 

oasy to mistake tills group, and is it visible in presence of the moon? 

8* 



9C PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS (.MAY- 

of small stars somewhat resembles that of the Milky-"\Vay. Jt 
contains besides the stars already alluded to, a number of 
nebulfE. 

The whole number of stars in this constellation is 43 ; its 
mean right ascension is 185°. It consequently is on the me- 
ridian the 13th of May. 

" Now behold 

The ghttering maze of Berenice's Hair ; 

Forty the stars ; but such as seem to kiss 

The Jlowing tresses with a lambent fire : 

Four to the telescope alone are seen." 
History. — Berenice was of royal descent, and a lady of grea.t bc-auty, who 
mariied Ptolemy Soter, or Evergetes, one of the kings of Egypt, her own bro- 
ther, 'vliom she loved with much tenderness. When he was going on a danger- 
ous expedition against the Assyrians, she vowed to dedicate her hair to the 
goddess of beauty, if he returned in safety. Sometime after the victorious re- 
turn of her husband, Evergetes, the locks which cigreeably to her oath, she had 
deposited in the temple of Venus disappeared. The king expressed great re- 
gret at the loss of what he so much prized ; whereupon Conon, his astronomer, 
publicly reported that Jupiter had taken away the queen's locks from the temple, 
and placed them among the stars. 

" There Berenice's locks first rose so bright, 

The heavens bespangling with dishevelled light." 
Conon. bemg sent for by the king, pointed out this constellation, saying, 
"There behold the lock.<5 of the queen." This group being among the unformed 
stars until that time, and not known as a constellation, the king was satisfied with 
the declaration of the astronomer, and the queen became reconciled to the par- 
tiality of the gods. 

Callimachus, an historian and poet, who flourished long before the Christiaa 
era, has these lines as translated by Tytler : — 

''Immortal Conon, blest with skill divine, 

Amid the sacred skies behold me shine ; 

E'en me, the beauteous hair, that lately shed 

Refulgent beams from Berenice's head ; 

The lock she fondly vowed with lifted arms. 

Imploring all the powers to save from harms 

Her dearer lord, when from his bride he flew, 

To wreck stem vengeance on the Assyrian crew." 



CORVUS. 

The Crow. — This small constellation is situated on the 
■ eastern part of Hydra, 15° E. of the Cup, and is on the same 
meridian with Coma Berenices, but as far S. of the equinoc- 
tial as Coma Berenices is N. of it. It therefore culminates 
at the same time, on the 12th of May. It contains nine visi- 
ble stars, including three of the 3d magnitude and two of the 
4th. 

This constellation is readily distingL^shed by means of 
three stars of the 3d magnitude and one Oi' the 4th, forming a 
trapezium or irregular square, the two upper ones being 
about 3|'^ apart, and the two- lower ones 6° apart. 

\VTiat does its lustre resemble? What is the number of stars In this tonstellation, 
and when is it on the meridian? Where is the Crow situated ' When is *.t on ti.o loe- 
ridian? Wb.Tt are the number and magnitude of its stars' IIow is it readily disiin 
{uished? 



MAI' IV. J CORVUS. 91 

The brightest of the two upper stars, on .he left, is called 
Algorab. and is situated in the E, wing of the Crow ; it has 
nearly the same declination S. that the Dog-star has, and is 
on the meridian about the 13th of May. It is 21^° E. of 
Alkes m the Cup, 14|^ S, W. of Spica Virginis, a brilliant 
star of the 1st magnitude to be described in the next chapter. 

Befa. on the back of Hydra and in the foot of the Crow, is 
a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 7^ S. of Algorab. It is the 
brightest of the two lower stars, and on the left. The right- 
hand lower one is a star of the 4th magnitude, situated in the 
neck, marked Epsilon. about 6^ W. of Beta, and may be 
known by a star of the same magnitude situated 2" below it, 
in the eye, and called .4/ Chiba. Epsilon is 21|^ S. of the 
vernal equinox, and if a meridian should be drawn from the 
pole through Megrez, and produced to Epsilon Corvi, it would 
mark the equinoctial colure. 

Gamma in the W. wing, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 3^° 
W. of Algorab, and is the upper righthand one in the square. 
It is but 1*^ E. of the equinoctial colure. 

10^ E. of Beta is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the tail of 
Hydra, marked Gamma; these two, with Algorab, form 
nearly a right angled triangle, the right angle being at Beta. 

History. — ^The Crow, it"is said, was once of the purest white, butwas changed 
for tale-beEiring to its present colour. A fit punishment for such a fault ! 
"The raven once in snowy plumes was di-est, 
White as the whitest dove's unsullied breast, 
Fair as the guardian of the capitol, 
Soft as the Swan ; a large and lovely fowl ; 
His tongne. his prating tongue, had'changed him quite, 
To sooty blackness from the purest white." 
According to Greek fable, the Crow was made a constellation by ApoUo. This 
god being jealous of Corouis. C^hom he tenderly loved,) the daughter of Phle- 
gyas and mother of CEsculapius. sent a crow to watch her behaviour ; the bird 
perceived her criminal partiality for Ischys the Thessalian, and immediately 
acquainted Apollo with her conduct, which so fired his indignation that he lodged 
an arrow in her breast, and killed her instantly. 

"The god was wroth ; the colour left his look. 
The wTeath his head, the harp his hand forsook; 
His silver bow and leathered shafts he took, 
And lodged an arrow in the tender breast, 
That had so often to his own been prest." 
To reward the crow, he placed her among the constellations. 
Others say that this constellation takes its name from the daughter of Coro- 
naeus, king of Phocis, who was transformed into a crow by Minerva, to rescue 
the maid from the pursuit of Neptune. The following, from an eminent Latin 
poet of the Augustine age. is her own accotmt of the metamorphosis eis transla- 
ted into English verse by Mr. Addison :— 

' For as my arms I hfted to the skies, 
I saw black feathers Irotn my fingers rise; 

Describe the position of Algorab. How does its declination compare with that of 
Sirius) What are its distance and direction from Alkes and Spica Virsinis? De- 
Bcribe the siuiation of Beta. Describe the situation of the righthand lower st.nr. What 
Is the distance of Epsilon from the vernal equinox, and how may the rnninoctial 
OOlure be traced out by it? What are the magnitude ani position of Garnmai Of BetaJ 



S2 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. \VIXT 

I strove to fling my garment on the ground ; 

My garment turned to plumes, and girt me round: 

My hands to beat my naked bosom try ; 

Nor naked bosom now nor hands had I : 

Lightly I tripp'd, nor weary as before 

Sunk in the sand, but skiniurd along the shore ; 

Till, rising on my wings, I was prefeiT'd 

To be the chaste Minerva's virgin bird." 



VIRGO. 

The Virgin. — This is the sixth sign, and seventh constel- 
lation in the ecliptic. It is situated next east of Leo, and 
about midway between Coma Berenices on the N. and Cor- 
vus on the S. It occupies a considerable space in the hea- 
vens, and contains, according to Flamsted, one hundred and 
ten stars, including one of the 1st, six of the 3d, and ten ot 
the 4th magnitudes. Its mean declination is 5^ N., and its 
mean right ascension is 195°. Its centre is therefore on the 
meridian about the 23d of May. 

The sun enters the sign Virgo, on the 23d of August, but does not enter the 
constellation before the 15th of September. When the sun is in this sign, the 
earth is in Pisces ; and vice versa. 

^pica Virginis, in the ear of corn* which the virgin holds 
in her left hand, is the most brilliant star in this constella- 
tion, and situated nearly 15^ E. N. E. of Algorab in the Crwv, 
about 35° S. E. of Denebola, and nearly as far S. S. W. 
of Arcturus — three very brilliant stars of the 1st magnitude 
that form a large equilateral triangle, pointing to the S. Arc- 
turus and Denebola are also the base of a similar triangle on 
the north, terminating in Cor Caroli, which, joined to the 
former, constitutes the Diamond of Virgo. The length of this 
figure, from Cor Caroli on the north to Spica Virginis on the 
south, is 50°. Its breadth, or shorter diameter, extending from 
Arcturus on the east, to Denebola on the west, is 35-5°. »^P'ca 
may otherwise be known by its solitary splendour, there being 
no visible star near it except one of the 4th magnitude, situ- 
ated about 1° below it, on the left. 

The position of this star in the heavens, has been deter- 
mined with great exactness for the benefit of navigators. It 

* In the Egj'ptian Zodiac, his, whose place was supplied by Virgo, was represented 
with three ears of corn in her hand. According to the Eiryjitian mytholoey, Isi;? waa 
!»aid to have dropped a sheaf of com, as she fled from Typhon, who, as he conf imied 
to iiursue her, scattered it over the heaven . The Chinese call the Zodiac the yelloto 
road, as resembling a path over which the ripened ears of corn are scattered. 

What is the relative position of Virgo among the signs and constellations of the 
ecliirtic? How is it siuuited ? How many suirs does it conUiin, and how l;ir:,'c are the 
principal ones? What are its mean declination and right a.<5censlon? When is .he 
centre of the constellation on the meridian? Describe the principal star fn Virgo What 
^re *.he distance and direction of Virra from AlgonJi, Denebola and Arcttini.<? What 
are the magnitude and appearance of these three stars, and what fieiire do they f>irm» 
How may Spica be otherwise distinguished) Why has its position been detcrroliied 
with great exactness? 



MAP IV. J VIRGO. 93 

IS OQG of the stars from which the moon's distance is taken 
for determining the longitude at sea. Its situation, is highly 
favourable for this purpose, as it lies within the moon's path, 
and little more than 2° below the earth's orbit. 
• Its right ascension being 199°, it will come to our meridian 
at 9 o'clock about the 28th of May, in that point of the heav- 
ens where the sun is at noon about the 20*^h of October. 

Vindemiatrix, is a stai" of the 3d magnitude, in the right arm, or nortnem wing; 
of Virgo, and is situated nearly in a straight line with, and midway between 
('oraa Berenices, and Spica Virginis. It is 19^° S. W. of Arcturus, and about the 
same distance S. E. of Coma Berenices, and forms with these two a large tri- 
angle pomting to the south. It bears also 18° S. S. E. of Dcnebola, and cornea 
to the m.eridian about 23 minutes before Spica Virginis. 

Zeta^ is a star of the 3d magnitude lli° N. of Spica, and very near the equi- 
noctial. Gamma, situated near the left"side, is also a star of the 3d magnitude, 
and very near the equinoctial. It is 13° due west of Zeta, with which and Spica 
it forms a handsome triangle. Eta. is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the southern 
wing, 5° W. of Gamma, and but 2|° E. oi the autumnal equinox. 

Beta, called also Zavijava, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the shoulder of 
the wing, 7^° W. of Eta, with which and Gamma, it forms a line near the Earth's 
orbit and parallel to it. Beta, Eta, Gamma and Spica, form the lower and longer 
fide of alarge spherical triangle whose vertex is in Beta. The other stars in this 
figure may be easily traced by means of the map. About 13° E. of Spica. there 
are two stars of the 4th magnitude. 3° apart, which mark the foot of Virgo. 
These two stars are on nearly the same meridian with Arcturus, and culminate 
nearly at the same time. The lower one, marked Lambda, is on the south, and 
but 8° W. of the principal star in Libra. Several other stars of the 3d magni- 
tude lie scattered about in this constellation, and may be traced out by the map. 
"Her lovely tresses glow with starry light ; 
Stars ornament the bracelet on her hand ; 
Her vest in ample fold, glitters with stars : 
Beneath her snowy feet they shine ; her eyes 
Lighten, all glorious, with the heavenly rays, 
'Bnifirst the star which crowns the golden sheaf" 
History.— The famous zodiac of Dendera, as w^e have already noticed, com- 
mences with the sign Leo ; but another zodiac, discovered among the ruins at 
Estne. in Egypt, commences with Virgo ; and from this circumstance, some 
have argued, that the regular precession of the equinoxes established a date to 
this at least 2000 years older than that at Dendera. The discoveries of Cham- 
poUion, however, render it probable that this ancient relic of astrology at Estne 
was erected during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, and consequently did 
not precede the one at Deudera more than fourteen years. 

Of this, however, we may be certain : the autumnal equinox now corresponds 
with the first degree of Virgo ; and, consequently, if we find a zodiac in which 
the summer solstice was placed where the autumnal equinox now is, that zodieic 
carries us back 90° on the ecliptic ; this divided by the annual precession 50^", 
must fix the date at about 6450 years ago. This computation, according to the 
chronology of the Sacred wridngs, carries us back to the earliest ages of the 
human species on earth, and proves, at least, that astronomy was among the 
first studies of mankind. The most rational way of accounting for this zodiac, 
says Jamieson, is to ascribe it to the family of Noah ; or perhaps to the patriarch 
himself who constructed it for the benefit of those who should live after the 
deluge, and who preserved it as a monument to perpetuate the actual state o^ 
the heavens immediately subsequent to the creation. 

Fable represents the ancient Eiryptians as believing that the yearly and regu- 
lar inundations of the Nile proceeded from the abundant tears which Isis shed 

A\'hy is its situation favourable for taking the moon's dist.ance? When does it pass 
our meridian? Describe the situation of Vindejviatrix. Describe the figure jvhich it 
forms with other stars in the same neighbourhood. M'hat are iti distance and bearing 
*rorn Denebola? Describe Zeta. Describe Gamma. De.'icrihe the position of Eta D«- 
eribe the position of Beta. UTiat geviiictrical figure mejj be formed of the stars in this 
neighltv,rhood ? 



94 PICTURE OF THE HEAVE.NS. I MAY 

for ihe loss of Osiris, whom Typhon had basely murdered. By coiJoiinMing 
the siuiple allegory of the learnefi with the mythological creed of the vulgar, it.t' 
historical account furnished us respecting Isis, becomes perplexed arui unin 
telliKible. Perhaps with the following key, we may unlock the mystery : — The 
eun in Leo, was adorned as the god Osiris ; in Virgo, it was worshipped as hla 
sister Isis ; at its passage into Scorpio, the terrible reign of Typhon commenced. 
Columella fixes the transit of the sun into Scorpio, on the 13tn of the calends of 
November ; and this jieriod nearly corres])onds with that in which Osiris was 
leigned to have been slain by Typhon, and the death of Orion was to have been 
occasioned by the sting of a scorpion. When Scorpio begins to rise, Orion set!*" 
when Scorpio comes to the meridian, Leo begins to set: — Typhon then reign* 
Osiris is slain, and his sister follows liim to the tomb weeping. The traditions alio 
tlie sign Virgo to Naphlali, whose standard had for its symbol, a tree " bearing 
goodly branches." 

Thus mythology, in describing the physical state of the world ir.vontec a 
Bymbohcal language which personified inanimate objects; ana the priests redu- 
ced the whole of their noblest science to fables, which the people believed as 
true histories representing the moral condition of mankind during the first ares 
of civil government. 

According to the ancient poets, this constellation represents the virgin A9- 
trasa, the goddess of justice, who lived upon the earth during the golden a^e ; 
but being offended at the wickedness and impiety of mankind during the brazen 
and iron ages of this world, she returned to heaven, and was placed among the 
constellations of the zodiac, wiih a pair of scales (Libra) in one hand and a 
sword in the other. 

Hesiod, who flourished nearly a thousand years before the birth of our 
Saviour, and later writers, mention four ages of the world ; the golden, the 
silver, the brazen, and the iron age. In the beginning of things, say they, all 
men were happy, and all men were good; the earth brought forth her fruits 
without the labour of man ; and cares, and wants, wars and diseases, were un- 
known. But this happy state of things did not last long. To the golden age, the 
silver age succeeded ;" to the silver, the brazen; and to the brazen, the iron. 
Perpetual spring no longer reigned ; men continually quarrelled with each other ; 
Time succeeded to crime ; and blasphemy and murder stained the history of 
every .day. In the golden age, the gods did not disdain to mix familiarly with 
the sons of men. The innocence, the integrity and brotherly love which they 
found among us. were a pleasing spectacle even to superior natures ; but as 
mankind degenerated, one god after another deserted their late beloved haunts; 
Astraea lingered the last ; but finding the earth steeped in human gore, she her- 
self flew away to the celestial regions. 

" Victa jacet pietas ; et virgo ca!de madentes 

Ultima coslestum terras Astraea reUquit." 
Met. Lib. i. v. 149. 
" Faith flees, and piety in exile mourns ; 

hxi6. justice, here oppress'd, to heaven returns." 
Some, however, maintain, that Erigone was changed into the constellation 
Virgo. The death of her father Icarius, an Athenian, who perished by the 
hands of some peasants, whom he had intoxicated with wine, caused a fit of 
despair, in which Erigone hung herself; and she was after\sards, as it is sai v 
placed among the signs of the zodiac. She was directed by her faithful q<^ 
Majra to the place where her father was slain. The first bough on which s) • 
hung herself, breaking, she sought a stronger, in order to effect her purpose. 
''Thus once in Marathon's impervious wood, 

Erigone beside her father stood, 

When hastening to discharge her pious vows, 

She loos'd the knot, and cull'd the strongest boughs." 
Lewis's Statins, B. xi. 



ASTERION ET CHARA; VEL CANES VENATICI. 

The Greyhounds. — This modern constellation, embracing 
two in one, was made by Hevelius out of the unformed stars 
What Is the origin of the constellation called the Greyhounds? 



MAP rV ' B00TF.3. 35 

gf the dQCients which, were scattered between Bootes on the 
easi, and Ursa Major on the west, and between the handle of 
the Dipper on the north, and Coma Berenices on the south. 

These Hounds are represented on the celestial sphere as 
being in pursuit of the Great Bear, which Bootes is hunting 
round the pole of heaven, while he holds in his hand the leash 
by which they are fastened together. The northern one is 
called Aster ion, and the southern one, Char a. 

The stars in this group are considerably scattered, and are 
principally of the 5th and 6th magnitudes ; of the twenty-five 
stars which it contains, there is but one sufficiently large to 
engage our attention. Cor CaroH, or Charleses Heart, so 
named by Sir Charles Scarborough, in memorj^ of King 
Charles the First, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the neck 
of Chara the Southern Hound. 

\^^len on the meridian. Cor Caroli is 17i° directly S. of Alioth, the third star 
in the handle of the Dipper, and is so nearly on the same meridian that it culmi- 
nates only one minute and a half after it. This occurs on the 2Uth of May. 

A hne dra\vn from Cor Caroli through Alioth will lead to the N. polar star. 
This star may also be readily distin^ished by its being in a straight line with, 
and midway between Benetnasch, the first star in the handle of the Dipper, and 
Coma Berenices : and also by the fact that when Cor Caroli is on the meridian, 
Denebola bears 2S^ S. W., and Arcturus 26^ S. E. of it, forming %vith these two 
stars a very large triangle, whose %"ertex is at the north; it is also at the north- 
em extremity of the large Diamond, already described. 

The remaining stars in tliis constellation are too small, and too much scattered 
to excite our interest. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE OH 
THE MERIDIAN IN JUNE. 

BOOTES.* 

The Bear-Driver is represented by the figure of a hunts- 
man in a running posture, grasping a club in his right hand, 
and holding up in his left the leash of his two greyhounds, 
Asterion and Chara, with which he seems to be pursuing the 
Great Bear round the pole of the heavens. He is thence called 
Arctpphylax, or the " Bear-Driver." 

* Pronounced I3o-o'-tes. 

How are the Greyhounds represented? By what names are they distinsniished? 
Vhat are the magnitudes of the stars which co'mpose this group, and how are they sit- 
uated with respect to eacli other? Describe the principal suir. When on the meridian 
what in its situation with regard to Alioth ? How is Cor Caroli situated with respect 
to the polar star ? How may this star be otherwise readily distinguished 1 What large 
geometrical figure does it form loi '.h two other bright stars in its vicinity ? How is the 
constellation Bootes represented? Why is Bootes called the Bear-Driver? 



96 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS [jDNB. 

This constellation is situated between Corona Borealis, on 
the east, and Cor Caroli, or the Greyhounds, on the west. It 
contains fifty-four stars, including one of the 1st magnitude, 
seven of the 3d, and ten of the 4th. Its mean declination is 
20° N., and its mean right ascension is 212° ; its centre is 
therefore on the meridian the 9th of June. 

Bootes may be easily distinguished by the position and 
splendour of its principal star, Arcturits, which shines with a 
reddish lustre, very much resembling that of the planet Mars. 

Ar^cthrus is a star of the 1st magnitude, situated near the 
left knee, 26° S. E. of Cor Caroli and Coma Berenices, with 
which it forms an elongated triangle, whose vertex is at Arc- 
turus. It is 35^° E. of Denebola, and nearly as far N. of 
Spica Virginis, and forms with these two, as has already 
been observed, a large equilateral triangle. It also makes, 
with Cor Caroli and Denebola, a large triangle whose vertex 
is in Cor Caroli. 

A great variety of geometrical figures may be formed of the stars in this bright 
region of the skies. For example ; Cor Caroh on the N., and Spica Virginis in 
the S., constitute the extreme points of a very large figure in the shape of a dia- 
mond; while Denebola on the W, and Arcturus on the E., limit the mean diam- 
eter at the other points. 

Arcturus is supposed, by some, to be nearer the earth than 
any other star in the northern hemisphere. 

Five or six degrees S. W. of Arcturus are three stars of the 3d and 4th magni- 
tudes, lying in a curved line, about 2° apart, and a little below the left knee of 
Bootes ; and about 7° E. of Arcturus are three or four other stars of similar mag- 
nitude, situated in the other leg, making a larger curve N. and S. 

Mirac, in the girdle, is a star of the 3d magnitude, \0° N. N. E. of Arcturus, 
and ai)out 11° W of Alphacca, a star in the Northern Crown. Seginus, in tlie 
west shoulder, is a star of the 3d magnitude, nearly 20^ E. of Cor Caroli, and 
about the same distance N. of Arcturus, and forms, with these two, a riglit an- 
gled triangle, the right angle being at Seginus. The same star forms a right an- 
gled triangle with Cor Caroli and Ahoth, in Ursa Major, the right angle being at 
Cor Caroh. 

Alkaturops, situated in the top of the club, is a star of the 4th magnitude, about 
I0|° in an easterly direction from Seginus, which lies in the left shoulder : and 
about 4|° S. of Alkaturops is another star of the 4th magnitude, in the club near 
the east shoulder, marked Delia. Delta is about 9° distant from Mirac, and 7^° 
from Alphacca, and forms, with these two, a regular triangle. 

Nek-kar is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the head, and is about 6° N. 
E. of Seginus, and 5° W. of Alkaturops ; it forms, with Delta and Seginus, nearly 
a riuht angled triangle, the right angle being at Nekkar. 

These are the principal stars in this constellation, except the three stars of 
the 4th magoitude situated in the right hand. These stars may be known, by 
two of them being close together, and about 5° beyond Benetnasch, the first star 

How is this constellation situated? How many stars does it contain? How lar;:e are 
the principal ones? What is its mean riirht ascension? Vhat is its me;ui declination 1 
When is its centre on the meridian? How is it easily distinguished from the sur- 
rounding constellations? Descrihe Arcturus. What is Its situation with rcspe'-t t>> 
Denehola and Spica Virginis ? How is it situated with respect to Cor Caroli and Dene- 
bola? What remarkable configuration in this part of the sky? What is the distance 
of Arcturus from the earth, compared with that of the other stars in the northern hem- 
isphere? What stars five or six degrees southtocsf qf Arcturus? What stars in the 
other leg? Describe the itar Mirac. Describe Sef^imis. With what other stars doe» 
Seginus fonn a right angled triangle ? Describe the position qf Alkaturops. Describe 
the position of Delta Describe Nekkar. 



MAP IV.J bOOTES. 97 

in the handle of the Dipper. About P° E. of Benetnasch is another stJir of the 
4th magnitude, situated in the arm, which forms, withBenetiiasi^h and the three 
in the hand, an equilateral triangle. 

The tlu-ee stars in the left hand of Bootes, the first in the handle of the Dipper 
Cor Carol:, Doma Berenices, and Denebola, are aU situated nearly in the same 
right line, running from northeast to southwest. 

" Bootes follows with redundant hght ; 

Fifty-four stars he boasts ; one guards the Bear, 

Thence caU'd Arcturus, of resplendent front, 

The pride of the ^rsi order; eight are veLl'd, 

Invisible to the unaided eye." 

jManilius thus speaks of this constellation: — 

"And next Bootes comes, whose ordered beams 
Present a figure driving of his teams. 
Below his girdle, near his knees, he bears 
The bright Arcturus, fairest of the stars." 

Arcturus is mentioned by name in that beautiful passage 
in Job, already referred to, Avhere the Almighty answers " out 
of the whirlwind," and says : — 

"Canst thou the sky's benevolence restrain, 

And cause the Pleiades to .shine in vain 'i 

Or, when Orion sparkles from his sphere, 

Thaw the cold seasons and unbind the year? 

Bid Mazzaroth his station know. 

And teach the bright Arcturus where to glowl" 

Young's Paraphrase. 
History. — The ancient Greeks caUed this constellation Lycaon — a name de- 
rived from Xi;«of) which signifies a wof. The Hebrews called it Caleb Anuback, 
the "Barking Dog;" while the Latins, among other names, called it Cams. If 
we go back to the time when Taurus opened the year, and when Virgo was the 
fifth of the zodiacal signs, we shall find that brilliant star Arcturus, so remarka- 
ble for its red and fiery appearance, corresponding with a period of the year as 
remarkable for its heat. Pythagoras, who introduced the true system of the 
universe into Greece, received if from CEnuphis, a priest of On, in Egypt. An(f 
this college of the priesthood was the noblest of the east, in cuhivating'the studies 
of philosophy and astronomy. Among the high honours which Pharaoh confer- 
red on Joseph, he very wisely gave hirn in marriage -'a daughter of the priest of 
On." The supposed era of the book of Job, in which Arcturus is repeatedly 
mentioned, is 1513 B. C. 

Bootes is supposed by some to be Icarus, the father of Erigone. who was killed 
by shepherds for intoxicating them. Others maintain that it isEricthonius, the 
inventor of chariots. According to Grecian fable, as well as later authorities, 
Bootes was the son of Jupher and Calisto, and named Areas. Ovid relates, that 
Juno, being incensed at Jupiter for his partiahty to Cahsto, changed her into a 
bear, and that her son Areas, who became a famous hunter, one day roused a 
bear in the chase, and not knowing that it was his mother, was about 'to kill her, 
when Jupiter snatched them both up to heaven and placed them among the con 
rtelJations. Met. b. ii. v. 496-50S. 

"But now her son had fifteen summers told, 

Fierce at the chase, and in the forest bold; 

WTien as he beat the woods in quest of prey, 

He chanced to rouse his mother where she lay. 

She knew her son, and kept him in her sight, 

And fondly gazed : the boy was in a fright, 

And aim'd a pointed arrow at her breast ; 

And would have slain his mother in the beast ; 

But Jove forbad, and snatch'd them through the air 

In whirlwinds up to heaven, and fix d 'em there ; 

Describe the three stars in the left hand qf Bootes. What stars in this neighlournood 
form a long line through the heavens? Where is Arcturus mentioned in the Scrli> 
turesT 



98 PICTURE OF THE IIEAVENB. • JUNE, 

Wliere the new ironstellations nightly rise, 
And add a lustre to the northern skies." 

Garth's 2\anslatton. 
Lt7CAN, in his Pharsalia, says, 

"That Brutus, on the busy tiinrs intent, 
To virtuous Gate's humble (Iwelling went. 
'Twas when the solemn dead of night carne on, 
When bright Calistu, icitk her shining son, 
Now half that circle round the pole had run." 
This constellation is called Bootes, says Cicero, (Nat. Deo. Lib. ii. 42.) from a 
Greek word signifying a wagoner, or ploughman ; and sometimes ArcLojmylax^ 
from two Greek words signifying bear-keeper or bear-driver. 
"Arctophylax, vulgo qui dicitur esse Bootes, 
Quod (juasi tenione adjunctum prae se quatit Arctum." 
The stars in this region of the skies seem to have attracted the admiration ol 
aiinost all the eminent writers of antiquity. Claudian observes, that 
"Bootes with his wain the north unfolds ; 
The southern gate Orion holds." 
Ajid Aratus,' who ilourished nearly 800 years before Claudian, says, 
" Behind, and seeming to urge on the Bear, 
Arctophylax, on earth Bootes named, 
Sheds o'er the Arctic car his silver light" 



CENTAURUS. 
The Centaur. — This fabulous monster is represented by 

* This is the poet whom St. Paul refers to when he te!!s the Athenians, Acts xvli. 
£8, that " some of their own poets have said," " Tot/ ya.fi yudu ^voc «!r^8v : For we are 
also his ofTspring." These words are the beginning of the 5th line of the " Phenome- 
na," of Aratus ; a celebrated Greek poem written in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
two thousand one hundred years ago, and afterwards translated into Latin verse by 
Cicero. Aratus was a poet of St. Paul's own country. The apostle borrows again from 
the same poet, both in his Epistle to the Galatians, and to Titus. The siiljec! of the 
poem was grand and interesting : hence we find it referred to m the writings of St. 
Clement, St. Jerome, St. Chrysostom, CEcumenius, and others. As this poem {lescribea 
the nature and motions of the stars, and the origin of the constellations, and is, more- 
over, one of the oldest compositions extant, upon this interesting subject, the author 
has taken some pains to procure a Polyglot copy from Germany, together with the As- 
tronomicon of Manilius, and some other works of similar antiquity, that nothing should 
be wanting on his part which could impart an interest to the study of the constella- 
tions, or illustrate the frequent allusions to them which we meet with in the Scrip- 
tures. 

Dr. Doddridge says of the above quotation, that " these words are well known to be 
foui'd in Aratus, a poet of Paul's own country, who lived almost 300 years helbre the 
apostle's time ; and that the s;irae wonls, with the alteration of only one letter, are to 
be found in the Hymn of Cleanthes, to Jupiter, the Supreme God; wtiich is. l)eyond 
comparison, the purest and finest piece of natural religion, of its length, which I know 
in the whole world of Pagan antiquity ; and which, so far as I am recollect, contains 
nothing unworthy of a Christian, or, I had almost said, of an inspired pen. The apos- 
tie might perhaps refer to Cleanthes, as well as to his countryman Aratus." 

Many of the elements and fables of heathen mythology are so blended with the in- 
spired writings, that they must needs be studied, more or less, in order to l«ve a more 
proper understanding of numerous passages both in the Old and New Tesuuiieiu. 

The great apostle of the Gentiles, in utterin? his inspired sentiments, and in pen- 
ning his epistles, often refers to, and sometimes quotes verbatim from the distinguished 
writers who preceded him. 

Thus, in 1 Cor. xv. 33. we have " M» ^xavatirfif * ^Bu^oua-iv »&n ^n<rB' o/utxtiU 
uojt'juj Be not deceived ; evil communications corrupt good manners ;" which is a 
literal quotation by the apostle frorc the Thais of Menander, an Inventor of Greek 
comedy, and a celebrated Athen?jn poet, who flourished nearly 400 years before the 
apostle wrote his epistle to thf Corinthians. Thus P;im] adopts the sentiment of the 
comedian, and it becomes ballowed by " the divinity that stirreil within him." Ter- 
tullian remarks, that " in Quoting this, the apostle hath sanctified the poet's sentimcut ' 

How is the 3entaur represented 5 



MAP IV. I LUPUS 99 

me figure of a man terminating in the body of a horse, hold- 
ing a wolf at arrays length in one hand, while he transfixes its 
Qody with a spear in the otiier. 

Although this constellation occupies a large space in the 
southern hemisphere, yet it is so low down that the main 
part of it cannot be seen in our latitude. It is situated south 
of Spica Virginis. with a mean declination of 50°. It con- 
tains thirty -five stars, including two of the Isi magnitude, one 
of the 2d, and six of the 3d ; the brightest of which are not 
visible in the United States. 

Theta, is a star of between the 2d and 3d magnitude, in the east shoulder, and 
may be seen ft-uni this latitude during the month of June, being about 27° S. by 
E. from Spica Virginis, and 12° or 13° above the southern horizon. It is easily 
recognised, in a clear evening, from the circumstance that there is no other star 
of similar brightness, in the same region, for which it can be mistaken. It is so 
nearly on the same meridian %vith Arcturus that it culminates but ten minutes 
before it. 

Iota, is a star of between the 4th and 5th magnitude, in the west shoulder, 9^° 
W. of Theta. It is about 26° almost directly south of Spica Virginis, and is on 
the meridian nearly at the same time. 

Mu and Nu, are stars of rne 4tn magnitude, in the breast, very near together, 
and form a regular triangle with the two stars in the shoulders. 

A few degrees north of the two stars in the shoulders, are four small stars in 
the liead. "The relative position of the stars in the head and shoulders is very 
similar to that of the stars in the head and shoulders of Orion. 

History.— Centaurs, in mythology, were a kind of fabulous monsters, half men 
and half horses. This fable is, however, ditferently interpreted; some suppose 
the Centaurs to have been a body of shepherds andherdsmen, rich in cattle, who 
inhabited the mountains of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the invention of 
pastoral poetry. But Plutarch and Pliny are of opinion, that such monsters have 
really existed. Others say, that under the reign of Ixion, king of Thessaly, a 
nerd of bulls ran mad, and ravaged the whole country, rendering the mountains 
Inaccessible ; and that some young men, who had foimd the art of taming and 
mounting horses, undertook to expel these noxious animals, which they pur- 
sued on horseback, and thence obtained the appellation of Centaurs. 

This success rendering them insolent, they insulted the Lapithee, a people of 
Thessaly ; and because, when attacked, they fled -with great rapiditv, it was sup- 
posed that they were half horses and half men ; men on horses being at that 
period a very uncommon sight, and the two appearing, especially at a distance, 
to constitute'but one animal. So the Spanish cavalry at first seemed to the as- 
tonished Mexicans, who imagined the horse and his 'rider, like the Centaurs ol 
the ancients, to be some monstrous animal of a terrible form. 

The Centaurs, in reality, were a ti-ibe of Lapithse, who resided near Moun 
Pehon, and first invented the art of breaking horses, as intimated by Virgil - 
"The Lapithae to chariots add the state 
Of bits and bridles ; taught the steed to bound; 
To turn the ring, and trace the mazy ground; 
To stop, to fly, tlie rules of war to know; 
To obey the rider, and to dare the foe." 



LUPUS. 

The Wolf. — This constellation is situated next east of 
Jie Centaur, and south of Libra ; and is so low down in the 



What is the situation of this constellation? "\\"hat are the number and maCTiltiuie of 
Its stars? Describe the situation of Theta. How is it easily recognised in a clear tven- 
ingl Wliat is its distance from the ineridian of Arcturus? Describe the star in tJu 
west shoulder. Describe the stam in the breast. Where is the Wolf situated t 



lOO PICTURE OF THF HEAVENS. [jUNE. 

routhern hemisphere, that only a few stars m the group are 
risible to us. 

It contains twenty-four stars, including' three of the 3d mag 
nitude, and as many of the 4th ; the brigtetest of which, when 
on the meridiau, may be seen in a clear evening, just above 
the southern horizon. Their particular situation, however 
will be better traced out by reference to the map than by writ- 
ten directions. 

The most favourable time for observing this constellation, 
is towards the latter end of June. 

History. — This crmstellation, according to fable, is Lycaon, king of Arcadia, 
who lived about 3,600 years ago, and was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, because 
he otfered human victims on the altars of the god Pan. Some attribute this met- 
amorphosis to another cause. The sins of mankind, as they relate, had become 
so enormous, that Jupiter visited the earth to punish its wickedne.-s and impiety. 
He came to Arcadia, where he was announced as a god, and the people bcpan 
to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon. however, who used to sacrilice 
all strangers to his wanton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers of his sub^kcts, 
and to try the divinity of the god, served up human flesh on his table. Thi» im- 
piety so offended Jupiter, that he immediately destroyed the house Ok LyetMi, 
and changed him into a wolf 

"Of these he murders one ; he boils the flesh, 

And lays the mangled morsels in a dish ; 

Some part he roasts ; then serves it up, so dress'd, 

And bids me welcome to his human feast. 

Moved with disdain, the table I o'ertum'd. 

And with avenging flames the palace burn'd. 

The tyrant in a fright for shelter gains 

The neighb'ring fields, and scours along the plains : 

Howling he fled, and fain he would have spoke, 

But human voice his brutal tongue forsook. 

His mantle, how his hide, with rugged hairs. 

Cleaves to his back ; a famish'd face he bears; 

His arms descend, his shoulders sink away 

To multiply his legs for chase of prey ; 

He grows a wolf" — Ovid, Met. B. i. 



LIBRA. 

The Balance. — This is the seventh sign, and eighth con- 
stellation, from the vernal equinox, and is situated in the Zo- 
diac, next east of Virgo. 

The sun enters this sig-n, at the autumnal equinox, on the 
23d of September ; but does not reach the constellation before 
the 27th of October. 

Virgo was the goddess of justice, and Libra, the scales, 
which she is usually represented as holding in her left hand, 
are the appropriate emblem of her office. When the sun en- 
ters the sign Libra, the days and nights are equal all over the 

How many stars does It contain? Under what circumstances may the brightest of 
them t)e seeni How may the stars in this group be most conveniently traced out? 
When is the most favourable time for observing this cor>st£lla(lon? How is Libra sit- 
uated among the constellation-^ of the Zodiac? At what sea.scr> of the year does the 
Bun enter Libra? Who was Virgo, and what was the emlilem of her office? What ia 
the relative length of the days and nights when the sun enters Librae 



MAP IV. J 



10* 



worJd, and seem to observe a kind of equilibrium, liKe c* 

balance. 

When, however, it is said that the vernal and autumna- 
equinoxes are in Aries, and Libra, and the tropics in Cance» 
and Capricorn, it must be remembered that the sig-ns Arie* 
and Libra, Cancer and Capricorn, and not the constellations 
of these names are meant ; for the equinoxes are noAV in thv 
constellations Pisces and Virgo, and the tropics in Gemim 
and Sagittarius; each constellation having gone forward 
one sign in the ecliptic. 

About 22 centuries ago, the constellation Libra coincided 
with the sign Libra; but having advanced 30= or more in the 
ecliptic, it is now in the sign Scorpio, and the constellation 
Scorpio is in the sign Sagittarius, and so on. 

While Aries is now advanced a whole sign above the equi- 
noctial point into north declination, Libra has descended as 
far below it into south declination. 

Libra contains fifty-one stars, including two of the 2d mag- 
nitude, two of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. Its mean decli- 
nation is 8° south, and its mean right ascension 226°. Its 
centre is therefore on ihe meridian about the 22d of June. 

It may be known by means of its four principal stars, form- 
ic ing a quadrilateral figure, lying northeast and southwest, and 
having its upper and lower corners nearly in a line running 
north and south. The tAvo stars which form the N. E. side of 
the square, are situated about 7^ apart, and distinguish the 
Northern Scale. The two stars which form the S. W. side 
of the square, are situated about 6° apart, and distinguish the 
Southern Scale. 

Zubenefschamali, in the Southern Scale, about 2P E. of Spica, and S^ E. of 
Lambda Virginis, is a star of the 2d magnitude, and is situated very near the 
ecliptic, about 42i^ E. of the autunmal equinox. The distance from this steir 
down to Theta Cehtauri, is about 23^, with which, and Spica Virginis, it forms a 
large triangle, on the right. 

Zubenelgeinabi. the uppermost star in the Northern Scale, is also of the 2d 
magnitude, 9i^ above Zubeneschamali. towards the northeast, and it comes to 
the meridian about twenty-six minutes after it, on the 23d of .Jime. Zubenelge- 
mabi is the northernmost of the four bright stars in this figure, and is exactly 
opposite the lower one. which is 11° south of it. 

Zubenhakrabi, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the Northern Scale. 7° S. E. of 
Zubenelgemabi, and nearly opposite to Zubeneschamali, a: the distance of ll'' 
on the east. These two make the diagonal of the square east and west. 

Iota, is a star of the 3d magnitude, and constitutes the southernmost comer of 

When it is said that the vernal and autumnal equinoxes ;ire in Aries and Libra, and 
Uie tropics in Cancer and Capricorn, what is meant? In what constellations, then, are 
Che equinoxes and the tropics situated? When did the constellation of Libra coincide 
with the sign of that name? In what sign is the constellation Libra now sitxiated; 
What are the number and magnitude of the stars in Libra' What are its ri«rht ascen- 
sion and declination? When is its centre on the meridian? How may this constella 
tion be known? What figure do the three upper stars in this figure form? What stirs 
distinguish the Northern Scale? What the Soutliem? Describe Zubeneschamali. With 
what other stars does it form a large triangle/ Describe the principal star in the 
Korthem Scale. Describe the position of Znbenhakrabi. Describe 'he volition of Iota. 
9* 



102 PICTURE OF THE HEAVEN3. [jUNE, 

the square. It is about 6° S. E. of Zubeneschamali, and 11° H. d Zubeiieke- 
rnaDi, with which it forms the other diagonal north and south. 

Zelii-.nelgubi, is a star of the 3d magnitude, situated below the Southern Scaler 
at the distance of 6"^ from lota, and marks the southern limit of the Zodiac. It is 
situated in a right line with, and nearly midway between, Spica Virginis and Bet* 
Scoi-pionis ; and comes to the meridian nearly at the same moment witli Nekkar, 
m the head of Bootes. 

The remaining stars in this constellation are too small to engage attention. 

The scholar, in tracing out this constellation in the heavens, will perceive fr.at 
Lambda and Mu, which lie in the feet of Virgo on the west, form, with Zubenes- 
chamali and Zubenelgemabi, almost as handsome and perfect a figure, as the 
other two stars in the Balance do on the east. 

History. — The Libra of the Zodiac, says Maurice, m his Indian Antiquities, is 
perpetually seen upon all the hieroglyphics of Egypt; which is at once an argu- 
ment of the great antiquity of this asterism, and of the probability of its having 
been originally fabricated by the astronomical sons of Misraim. In some few 
zodiac..s, Astraea, or the virgin who holds the balance in her hand as an emblem 
of equal justice, is not drawn. Such are the zodiacs of Estne and Dendera. 
Humboldt is of opinion, that although the Romans introduced this constellation 
into their zodiac in the reign of Julius Cesar, still it might have been used by the 
Egyptians and other nations of very remote antiquity 

It is generally supposed that the figure of the balance has been used by aQ 
naticns to denote the equality of the days and nights, at the period of the sun's 
arriving at this sign. It has also been obsen-ed, that at this season there is a 
greater uniformity in the temperature of the air all over the earth's surface. 

Others affirm, that the beam only of the balance was at first placed among the 
stars, and that the Egyptians thus honoured it as their Nilometer, or instrument 
by which they measured the inundations of the Nile. To this custom of measur- 
ing the waters of the Nile, it is thought the prophet alludes, when he describea 
the Almighty as measuring the waters in the hollow of his hand. — Isa. xl. 12. 

The ancient husbandmen, accordinir to Virgil, were wont to regard this siga 
as indicating the proper time for sowing their winter grain: — 
"But when Astraea's balance, hung on high. 
Betwixt the nights and days divides the sky. 
Then yoke your oxen, sow your vvinter grain. 
Till cold December comes with driving rain." 

The Greeks declare that the balance was placed among the stars to perpetuais 
the memory of Mochus, the inventor of weights and measures. 

Those who refer the constellations of the Zodiac to the twelve tribes of Israel^ 
asciibe the Balance to Asher. 



SERPENS. 
The Serpent. — There are no less than four kinds of ser 
pents placed among the constellations. The first is the Hydra, 
which is situated south of the Zodiac, helow Cancer, Leo and 
Virgo ; the second is Hydrus, which is situated near the south 
poie ; the third is Draco, which is situated about the north 
pole ; and the fourth is the Serpent, calk "" oerpens Ophiuchi, 
ana is situated chiefly between Libra and Corona Borealis. 
A large part of this constellation, however, is so blended with 
Ophiuchus, the Serpent-Bearer, who grasps it in both hands, 
tns the concluding description of it will be deferred until we 
come to that constellation. 

"The Serpens Ophiuchi winds his spire , 

Immense ; fewer by ten his figure trace ; 



W?icU star in this consteUation marks the southern limit of the Zodiac? How many 
Kinds of serpents liaveneen placed amonpthe constellations? Mention them andtbeu 
tituations. With what is a large part of Uiis constellation blended? 



MAP v., SERPENS. 103 

One of the second rank ; ten shun the sight ; 
And seven; he who bears the monster hides." 

Those stars which lie scattered along for about 25°, in a 
serpentine direction between Libra and the Crown, mark the 
body and head of the Serpent. 

About 10° directly S. of the Crown there are three stars ol 
the 3d magnitude, which, with several smaller ones, distin- 
guish the head. 

Unuk, of the 2d magnitude, is the principal star in this con- 
stellation. It is situated in the heart, about 10° below those 
in the head, and may be known by its being in a L ne with, 
and between, two stars of the 3d magnitude — the lower one, 
marked Epsilon, being 2|°, and the upper one, marked Delta, 
about 5^° from it. The direction of this line is N. N. W. and 
S. :S. E. Unuk may otherwise be known by means of a small 
star, just above it, marked Lambda. 

In that part of the Serpent which lies between Corona Bo- 
realis and the Scales, about a dozen stars may be counted, of 
which five or six are conspicuous. 

For the remainder of this constellation, the student is refer- 
red to Serpentarius. 

"Vast as the starry Serpent, that on high 
Tracks the clear ether, and divides the sky 
And southward winding from the Northern' Wain, 
Shoots to remoter spheres its gUttering train." — Statins. 
History. — ^The Hivites, of the Old Testament, were worshippers of the Ser- 
pent, and were called Ophites. The idolatry of these Ophites was extremely 
ancient, and was connected with Tsafeam/i, or the worship of the host of heaven. 
The heresy of the Ophites, mentioned by Mosheim in his Ecclesiastical History, 
originated, perhaps, in the admission into the Christian church of some remnant 
of the ancient and popular sect of Tsabaists, who adored the celestial Serpent. 

According to ancient tradition, Ophiuchus is the celebrated physician .^scu- 
lapius, son of Apollo, who was instructed in the healing art by Chi^-on the Cen- 
taur ; and the serpent, which is here placed in his hands, is understood by some 
to be an emblem of his sagacity and prudence ; while others suppose it was 
designed to denote his skill in healing the bite of this reptile. Biblical critics 
imagine that this constellation is alluded to in the following passage of the book 
of Job :— 

"By his spirit He hath garnished the heavens; his hand hath formed the 
crooked serpent." Mr. Green supposes, however, that the inspired writer here 
refers to Draco, because it is a more obvious constellation, being nearer the pole 
where the constellations were more universally noticed ; and moreover, because 
it is a more ancient constellation than the Serpent, and the hieroglyphic by which 
the Egyptians usually represented the heavens. 



CORONA BOREALIS. 

The Northern Crown. — This beautiful constellation may- 
be easily known by means of its six principal stars, which 
are so placed as to form a circular figure, very much resem- 

What stars mark the head and body of the Serpent? Describe the principnl star in 
this constellation. How may it be known? What stars distinguish the head f How 
Aiany stars maybe counted in that part of the constellation which lies between Corona 
Borealis axi'i the Scales ? How may Corona Borealis be easily known? 



'04 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | JlTfR 

bling a wreath or crown. It is situated directly north of the 
Serpent's head, between Bootes on the west and Hercules on 
tlie east. 

. This aslerism was known to the Hebrews by the name of Atarotk, and by this 
name the stars in Corona Borealis are called, in the East, to this day. 

Alphacca, of the 3d magnitude, is the brightest and middle 
star in the diadem, and about 11° E. of Mirac, in Bootes. It 
is very readily distinguished from the others both on account 
of its position and superior brilliancy. Alphacca, Arcturus, 
and Seginus, form nearly an isosceles triangle, the vertex of 
which is at Arcturus. 

This constellation contains twenty-one stars, of which 
only six or eight are conspicuous ; and most of these are not 
larger than the 3d magnitude. Its mean declination is 30° 
north, and its mean right ascension 235° ; its centre is 
therefore on the meridian about the last of June, and the first 
of July. 

" And, near to Helice, effulgent rays 
Beam, Ariadne^ from thy starry crown : 
Twenty and one her stars ; but eight alone 
Conspicuous ; one doubtful, or to claim 
The second order, or accept the third." 

History.— This beautiful little cluster of stars is said to be in commemoration 
of a crown presented by Bacchus to Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, second king 
of Crete. Theseus, king of Athens, (1235 B. C.,) was shut up in the celebrated 
labyrinth of Crete, to be devoured by the ferocious Minotaur which was con- 
fined in that place, and which usually fed upon the chosen young men and 
maidens exacted from the Athenians as a yearly tribute to the tyranny of Minos , 
but Theseus slew the monster, and being furnished with a clue of thread by 
Ariadne, who was passionately enamoured of him, he extricated himself from 
the difficult windings of his confinement. 

He afterwards married the beautiful Ariacbie, according to promise, and car- 
ried her away ; but when he arrived at the island of Na.xos, he deserted her, 
not%vithstanding he had received from her the most honourable evidence of at- 
tachment and endearing tenderness. Ariadne was so disconsolate upon being 
abandoned by Theseus, that, as some say, she hanged herself; but Plutarch 
says that she lived many years after, and was espoused to Bacchus, wlio loved 
ner with much tenderness, and gave her a crown of seven stars, whicli, aftei 
her death, was placed among the stars. 

"Resolves, for this the dear engaging dame 
Should shine forever in the rolls of fame ; 
And bids her crown among the stars be placed, 
And with an eternal constellation grac'd. 
The golden circlet mounts ; and, as it flies, 
Its diamonds twinkle in the distant skies ; 
There, in their pristine form, the genuny rays 
Between Alcides and the Dragon blaze." 

Manilius, in the first book of his Aslronomicon, thus speaks of the Crown. 

" Near to Bootes the bright crown is view'd 
Ani shines with stars of different magnitude : 

Where is it situated? Describe the princip.il st.ar in the pronp. "What geometrical 
fl^re is formed by the stars in this neighhonrhood ? What ure the number and mag 
mtude of the stars in this constellation ? What are its mean declination and right as- 
cension? "When is it on car meridian? 



MAP VI.] URSA MINOR. 105 

Or placed in front aoove the rest displays 
A vigorous light, and darts surprising rays. 
This shonp, since Theseus first his faith betray'd 
The mormnent of the forsaken maid." 



URSA MINOR. 

The Little Bear. — This constellation, though not re- 
markable in its appearance, and containing but few conspi- 
cuous stars, IS, nevertheless, justly distinguisned from ali 
others for the peculiar advantages which its position in the 
neavens is well known to afford to nautical astronomy, and 
especially to navigation and surveying. 

The stars in this group being situated near the celestia. 
pole, appear to revolve about it, very slowly, and in circles 
so small as never to descend below the horizon. 

In all ages of the world, this constellation has been more 
universally observed, and more carefully noticed than any 
other, on account of the importance which mankind early at- 
tached to the position of its principal star. 

This star which is so near the true pole of the heavens, 
has, from time immemorial, been denominated the North 
Polar Star. By the Greeks it is called Cynosyre ; by the 
Romans, Cynosiira. and by other nations, Alruccabah. 

It is of the 3d magnitude, or between the 2d and 3d, and 
situated a little more than a degree and a half from the true 
pole of the heavens, on that side of it which is towards Cassi- 
opeia, and opposite to Ursa Major. Its position is pointed 
out by the direction of the t^^o Pointers, Merak and Dubhe, 
which lie in the square of Ursa Major. A line joining Beta 
Cassiopeise, which lies at the distance of 32^ on one side, and 
Megrez, which lies at the same distance on the other, will 
pass through the polar star. 

So general is the popular notion, that the North Polar Star 
is the true pole of the world, that even sun^eyors and 
navigators, who have acquired considerable dexterity in the 
use of the compass and the quadrant, are not aware that it 
ever had any deviation, and consequentlv never make allow- 
ance for any. All calculations derived from the observed posi- 
tion of this star, which are founded upon. the idea that its 
bearing is always due north of any place, are necessarily er- 
roneous, since it is in this position only twice in twenty- -four 
hours ; once when above, and once when below the pole. 

What renders Ursa Minor an important constellation'? What is its situation with 
respect to the North Pole, and how do its stars appear to revolve around this pole? 
Why has this constellation been more universally obser\-ed, in all ages of the world, 
than any other? What is this star denominated? What are its magnitude nnd posi- 
tion? How is its position pointed ouf How is it situated with respect to Meerez 
and Beta Cassiopeise? Is it generally considered to be the north pole of the heavens? 
Are calcidations founded uoon this notion correct? 



106 PICTURE OF THF HIIAVE.NS. pUNIB 

According to the Nautical Almanac, the mean distance oi 
this star from the true pole of the heavens, for the year 1833 
is 1° 34' 53". and its mean right ascension is 1 hour and 19 
seconds. Consequently, when the right ascension of the me- 
ridian of any place is 1 hour and 19 seconds, the star will be 
exactly on the meridian at that time and place, but 1" 34' 
53" above the true pole. Six hours after, when the right as- 
cension of the meridian is 7 hours and 19 seconds, the star 
will be at its greatest elongation, or 1^ 34' 53" directly west 
of the true pole, and parallel to it, with respect to the horizon ; 
and when the right ascension of the meridian is 13 hours and 
19 seconds, the star will be again on the meridian, but at the 
distance of 1° 34' 53" directly below the pole. 

In like manner, when the right ascension of the meridan is 
19 hours and 19 seconds, the star will be at its greatest east- 
ern elongation, or 1° 34' 53" east of the true pole ; and when 
it has finished its revolution, and the right ascension of the 
meridian is 25 hours and 19 seconds, or, what is the same 
thing, 1 hour and 19 seconds, the star will now be on the 
meridian again, 1° 34' 53" above the pole. 

N. B. The right ascension of the meridian or of the mifi-heaven, is the (lis- 
tance of the first point of Aries from the meridian, at the time and )>.af.e of ob- 
servation. The right ascension of the meridian for anytime, is fouml. by adding 
to the ^rjven time the smi's right ascension at the same time, and deducting 24 
hours, when the sum exceeds 24 hours. 

From the foregoing facts we learn, that from the time the 
star is on the meridian, above the pole, it deviates farther and 
farther from the true meridian, every hour, as it moves to the 
west, for the space of six hours, when it arrives at its greatest 
elongation west, whence it reapproaches the same meridian 
below the pole, during the next six hours, and is then again 
on the meridian ; being thus alternately half the tmie west 
of the meridian, and half the time east of it. 

Hence, it is evident that the surveyor who regulates his 
compass by the North Polar Star, must take his observation 
when the star is on the meridian, either above or below the 
pole, or make allowance for its altered position in every other 
situation. For the same reason must the navigator, who ap- 
plies his quadrant ^0 this star for the purpose of determining 
the latitude he is in, make a similar allowance, according as 
its altitude is greater or less than the true pole of the hea- 

What is the present distance of this star from the tnie pole of the heavens? What is 
its mean ri2ht ascension? When is it on the meridian, and what then is its bearing 
from the pole. "What is its situation six hours afterwards? AVhat is its situation six 
hours after that? What is its situation when in its third quadnmt ? What do you un- 
derstand by the right ascension of the meridian, or of the 7n id heaven ? Htrto do yi/u 
find the right ascension of the mid-heaven ? In what manner does the north star de- 
viate from the meridian during one revolution ? How do these facts concern the sur- 
veyor ' 



MAP VI. J CRSA MINOR. 107 

veas ; for vi^e have seen that it is alternately half the time 
zbove and half the time below the pole. 

The method of finding the latitude of a place from the alti- 
mde of the polar star, as it is ver\^ simple, is very often re- 
sorted to. Indeed, in northern latitudes, the situation of this 
star IS more favourable for this purpose than that of any other 
of the heavenly bodies, because a single observation, taken al 
any hour of the night, with a good instrument, will give the 
trie latitude, without any calculation or correction, except 
that of its polar aberration. 

If the polar star always occupied that point in the heavens which is directly 
opposite the north pole of the earth, it would be easy to understand how latitude 
could be determined from it in the northern hemisphere ; for in this case, to a 
person on the equator, the poles of the world would be seen in the horizon. 
Consequently, the star would appear just visible in the northern horizon, with 
out any elevation. Should the person now travel one degree towards the north, 
he would see one degree below the star, and he would think it had risen one 
degree. 

And since we always see the whole of the upper hemisphere at one view. 
v;hen there is nothing in the horizon to obstruct our vision, it follows that if we 
should travel 10° north of the equator, we should see just 10° below the pole, 
which would then appear to have risen 10°^ and should we stop at the 42d de- 
gree of north latitude we should, in like manner, have our horizon just 42° below 
the pole, or the pole would appear to have an elevation of 42°. Whence we de- 
rive this !jeneral truth: The elevation of the pole of tke eqiuitor, is always equal 
to the latitude of the place qfobsertation. 

Any instrument, then, which will give us the altitude of the north pole, wih 
^ve us also the latitude of the place. , 

The method of illustrating this phenomenon, as given in most treatises on the 
^obe, and as adopted by teachers generally, is to tell the scholar that the north 
pole rises higher and higher, as he travels farther and farther towards it. In 
other words, whatever number of degrees he advances towards the north pole, 
so many degrees will it rise above his horizon. This is not only an obvious errour 
in principle^ but it misleads the apprehension of the pupil. It is not that the pole 
ts elevated, but that our horizon is depressed as we advance towards the north. 
The same objection hes against the artificial globe; for it ought to be so fixed 
that the horizon might be raised or depressed, and the pole remain in its own 
invariable position. 

Ursa Minor contains twenty-four stars, including three of 
the 3d magnitude and four of the 4th. The seven principal 
stars are so situated as to form a figure very much resembling 
that in the Great Bear, only that the Dipper is reversed, and 
about one half as large as the one in that constellation. 

The fii'st star in the handle, called Cynosura., or Alrucca- 
bah, is the polar sta,r, around which the rest constantly re- 
volve. The two last in the bov/1 of the Dipper, corresponding 
10 the Pointers in the Great Bear, are of the Sd magnifade, 

VTiy is the method of finding the latitude by the polar siar, often resorted to? Why 
is the posirion of this star favourable to this purpose? If the north star -perfectly co- 
incided with tlie north pole of the heavens, lohere would it be ^een from the equatorJ 
Should a person travel one degree north of the equator, where would the star appear 
then 7 Suppose he should travel 10 degree^- north of the equator 7 Suppose he xoere to 
ttop at the ia.d degree of north latitude 7 What general truth resxtltsfrom ihese facts 7 
What, then, is all ice vjant. to find the latitude of any place? Qfiohat advantage to a 
mariner, is an instrument which loill give the altitude of the pole7 What are the 
number ?ni1 magnitude of the stars, contained in Ursa Minor? What fisiire do the 
seven principal stars fonn? Describe the first in tl-ia handle of the Little Dipper. D« 
wribe the two last in the bowl of the Dipper 



108 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | JUNE, 

and situated about 15° from the pole. The brightest of them 
is called Kochab, which signifies an axle or hinge, probably 
in reference to its moving so near the axis of the earth. 

Kochab may be easily known by its being the brightest 
and middle one of three conspicuous stars forming a row, one 
of which is about 2°, and the other 3°, from Kochab. The 
two brightest of these are situated in the breast and shoulder 
of the animal, about 3° apart, and are called the Guards or 
Pointers of Ursa Minor. They are on the meridian about the 
20th of June, but may be seen at all hours of the night, when 
the sky is clear. 

Of the four stars which form the bowl of the Dipper, one 
is so small as hardly to be seen. They lie in a direction to- 
wards Gamma in Cepheus ; but as they are continually 
changing their position in the heavens, they may be much 
better traced out from the map, than from description. 

Kochab is aoout 25° distant from Benetnasch, and about 
24° from Dubhe, and hence forms with them a very nearly 
equilateral triangle. 

" The Lesser Bear 

Leads from the pole the lucid band : the stars 
Which form this constellation, faintly shine, 
Twice twelve in number ; only one beams forth 
Conspicuous in high splendour, named by Greece 
The Cynosure ; by us the Polar Star." 
History. — The prevailing opinion is, that Ursa Major and Ursa Minor are th« 
nymph Calisto and her son Areas, and that they were transformed into bear* 
by the enraged and imperious Juno, and afterwards translated to heaven by the 
favour of Jupiter, lest they might be destroyed by the huntsmen. 

The Chinese claim that the emperor Hong-ti, the grandson of Noah, first dis- 
covered the polar star, and applied it to purposes of navigation. It is certain that 
rt was used for this purpose in a very remote period of antiquity. From variout 
passages in the ancients, it is manifest that the PhoiniciaDS steered by Cynosura, 
or the Lesser Bear; whereas the mariners of Greece, and some other natioua. 
steered by the Greater Bear, called Helice, or Helix. 

Lucan, a Latin poet, who flourished about the time of the birth of our Saviour 

&US adverts to the practice of steering vessels by Cynosura: — 

"Unstable Tyre now knit to firmer ground, 

With Sidon for her purple shells renown'd 

Safe in the Cynosure their glittering guide 

With well-directed navies stem the tide." 

Rowe's Translation, B. iil. 
The foUovvring extracts from other poets contain allusions to the same fact : -, 
"Phoenicia, spuming Asia's bounding strand. 
By the bright Pole star's steady radiance led, 
Bade to the winds her daring sails expand. 
And fearless plough'd old Ocean's .•^torniy bed." 

Maurice's Elegy on Sir W. Jona 
■ Ye radiant signs, who from the etherial plain 
Sidonians guide, and Greeks upon the main. 
Who from your poles all earthly things explore, 
And never set beneath the western snore." 

Ovid's Tristia 

HOW may Kochab be easily known? What are the position and name of the tw» 
■Tightest of these ? When are they on the meridian' How is Koehalj situated wit* 
»8pectto Benetnasch and Dubhe' 



SCORPIO. 



lOP 



* Of all yon multitude ot golden stars, 
Wiiich the wide rounding sphere incessant beara, 
The cautious mariner relies on none, 
But Jieeps him to the constant pole alone." 

Lucan's Pharsalia, B. viii. v, 225. 
Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, are sometimes called Triones, and scmetimestht 
Greater and Lesser Wains. In Pennington's Memoirs of the learned Mrs. Car 
ter, we have the following beaiitiful lines: — 

" Here, Cassiopeia fills a lucid throne, 
T^iere, blaze the splendours of the Northern Crown* 
While the slow Car, the cold Triones roU 
O'er the pale countries of the frozen pole : 
Whose faithful beams conduct the wand'ring ship 
Through the wide desert of the pathless deep." 
Thales, an eminent geometrician and astronomer, and one of the seven vfiaa 
men of Greece, who flourished six hundred years before the Christian era, is 
generally reputed to be the inventor of this constellation, and tc have taught the 
use of it to the Phcenician navigators ; it is certain that he brought the knowledge 
of it with him from Phcenice into Greece, with many other discoverios both ia 
astronomy and mathematics. 

Until the properties of the magnet were known and applied to the use of navi- 
gation, and for a long time aftei-, the north polar star was the only sure guide. 
At what time the attractive powers of the magnet were first known, is not cer- 
tain ; they were known in Europe about six hundred years before the Christian 
?ra ; and by the Chinese records, it is said that its polar attraction was known ia 
tiiat country at least one thousand years earher. 



CHAPTER IX. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE OH 
THE MERIDIAN IN JULY. 

SCORPIO. 

The Scorpion. — This is the eighth sign, and ninth constel- 
lation, in the order of the Zodiac. It presents one of the most 
interesting groups of stars for the pupil to trace out that is to 
be found in tha southern hemisphere. It is situated south* 
ward and eastward of Libra, and is on the meridian the 10th 
of July. 

The sun enters this sign on the 23d of October, but does not reach the constella- 
tion before the 20th of November. When astronomy was first cultivated in the 
East, the two solstices and the two equinoxes took place when the sun was in 
Aquarius and Leo, Taurus and Scorpio, respectively. 

Scorpio contains, according to Flamsted, forty-four stars 
including op jf / e 1st magnitude, one of the 2d, and eleven 
of the 3d. K ' yieadily distinguished from all others by the 
peculiar lus^ ^ and the position of its principal stars. 

Antares, is the principal star, and is situated in the hear! 

What is the position of Scorpio, among the signs and constellations of the Zodiac! 
How is it situated with respect to Libra, and when is it on our meridian? What ai6 
the nvunber and magnitude of its stars? How is it readily distinguished from all 
others ? Describe the '3rinciDal star in this constell^iion? 

10 



10 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [jUlT. 

of the Scorpion, about 19^ east of Zubenelgubi, the southern- 
most star in the Balance. Antares is the most brilliant star 
m that region of the skies, and may be otherwise distinguish- 
ed by its remarkably red appearance. Its declination is about 
26° S. It comes to the meridian about three hours after 
Spica Virginis, or fifty minutes after Corona Borealis, on the 
lOlh of July. It is one of the stars from which the moon't 
distance is reckoned for computing the longitude at sea. 

There are four great stars in the heavens, Fomalhaut, Aldebaran, Regulus, 
and Antares, which formerly answered to the solstitial and equinoctial points* 
and which were much noticed by the astronomers of the East. 

About 8^° northwest of Antares, is a star of the 2d mag- 
nitude, in the head of the Scorpion, called Graffias. It is but 
one degree north of the earth's orbit. It may "be recognised 
by means of a small star, situated about a degree northeast 
of it, and also by its forming a slight curve with two other 
stars of the 3d magnitude, situated below it, each about 3° 
apart. The broad part of the constellation near Graffias, is 
powdered with numerous small stars, converging down to a 
point at Antares, and resembling in figure a boy's kite. 

As you proceed from Antares, there are ten conspicuous 
stars, chiefly of the 3d magnitude, which mark the tail of ihe 
kite, extending down, first in a south, southeasterly direction, 
about 17^5 thence easterly about 8° further, when they tiirn, 
and advance about 8° towards the north, forming a curve like 
a shepherd's crook, or the bottom part of the letter S. This 
crooked line of stars, forming the tail of the Scorpion, is very 
conspicuous, and may be easily traced. 

The first star below Antares, which is the last in the back, is of only the 4th 
magnitude. It is about 2° southeast of Antares, and is denoted by tlie Greek 
name of T. 

Epsilon, of the 3d mapnitude, is the second star from Antares. and the first in 
the tail. It is situated about 7° below the star T, but inclining a little to the easL 

Mu, of the 3d magnitude, is the third star from Antares. It is situated 4^° be- 
low Epsilon. It may otherwise ue known by means of a small star close by it, 
on the left. 

Zeta, of about the same magnitude, and situated about as far below Mu. is the 
fourth star from Antares. Here the line turns suddenly to the east. 

Eta, also of the 3d magnitude, is the fifth star from Antares, and about 3J° 
east of Zeta. 

Theta. of the same magnitude, is the si.vth star from Antares, and about 4^** 
east of Eta. Here, the line turns again, curving to the north, and terminates m 
a couple of stars. 

Iota, is the seventh star from Antares, Zh° above Theta, curving a little to the 
left. It is a star of the 3d magnitude, and'may be known by means of a sruall 
star, almost touching it, on the east. 

Kappa, & star of equal brightness, is less than 2° above Iota, and a little to the 

How is Antires otherwise distinsruished? What is its declination? What is the 
thne of its pa.ssing the meridian ? What nautical importance is attached to its position? 
Describe Graffias? How may it be recognised? What is the appearance of the constel- 
hition between Graffias and Antares? How numy conspicuous stars below Antares? 
What are their miurnitude and general direction? Describe thejirst star beloto An- 
tares. Pe-fcribe the second star beloto Antares. Describe the third star, and tell hoio 
ir -niay be known. Describe the fourth. Describe the fifth. Describe Theta. Desert* 
loiu. Describe Kappa. 



MAP V.J SCORPIO. Ill 

Lesuth. ol tne 3d magnitude, is the brightest of the two last in ihe tail, and is 
Bi'uated about 3° above Kappa, still further to the right. It may readily he 
kitjwi. b> nxeans of a smaller star, close by it, on the west. 

This IS a very beautiful group of stars, and easily traced 
cut m the heavens. It furnishes striking evidence oi the fa- 
cility with which most of the constellations may be so accu- 
rately delineated, as to preclude every thing like uncertainty 
in the knowledge of their relative situation. 

"The heart with lustre of amazing force, 

Reiulgent vibrates ; faint the other parts, 

And ill-defined by stars of meaner note." 
History. — This sign was anciently represented by rarious symbols, sometimea 
by a snake, and sometimes by a crocodile ; but most commonly by the scorpion. 
This last symbol is found on'ihe Mithraic monuments, which i.s pretty good evi- 
dence that these monuments were constructed when the vernal equinox accord- 
ed with Taur us. 

On both the zodiacs of Dendera, there are rude dehneations of this animal; 
that on the portico differs considerably from that on the other zodiac, now in 
the Louvre. 

Scorpio was considered by the ancient astrologers as a sign accursed. The 
Egyptians fised the entrance of the sun into Scorpio as the commencement of 
the reign of Typhon, when the Greeks fabled the death of Orion. When the sun 
was in Scorpio, in the month of Athyr, as Plutarch informs us, the Egyptians 
enclosed the body of their god Osiris in an ark, or chest, and during this cere- 
mony a great annual festival was celebrated. Three days after the priesta 
had enclosed Osiris in the ark, they pretended to have found him again. The 
death of Osiris, then, was lamented when the sun in Scorpio descended to the 
lower hemisphere, and when he arose at the vei'nal equinox, then Osiris was 
said to be born anew. 

The Egyptians or Chaldeans, who first arranged the Zodiac, might have placed 
Scorpio in this part of the heavens to denote that when the sun enters this sign, 
the diseases incident to the fruit season would prevail ; since Autumn, which 
abounded in fruit, often brought with it a great variety of diseases, and might be 
thus fitly represented by that venomous animal, the scorpion, who, as he re- 
cedes, wounds with a sting in his tail. 

Mars was the tutelary deity of the scorpion, and to this circumstance is owing 
all that jargon of the astrologers, who say that there is a great analogy between 
the mahgn influence of the planet Mars, and this sign. To this also is" owing the 
doctrine of the alchymists, that iron, which metal they call Mars, is under the 
dominion of Scorpio ; so that the transmutation of it into gold can be effected 
only when the sun is in this sign. 

The constellation of the Scorpion is very ancient. Ovid thus mentions it in hia 
oeautiful fable of Phaeton : — 

"There is a place above, where Scorpio bent. 

In tail and arms surrounds a vast extent ; 

In a wide circuit of the heavens he shines, 

And fills the place of two celestial signs." 
A-Ccording to Ovid, this is The famous scorpion which sprang out of the earth 
at the command of Juno, and stung Orion ; of which wound he died. It was ia 
tiiis way the imperious goddess chose to punish the vanity of the hero and the 
hunter, for boasting that thei'e was not on ear"th any animal which he could not 
conquer. 

"Words that provok'd the gods once from him fell, 

'No beasts so fierce,' said he, ' but I can quell \' 

Wlien lo ! the earth a baleful scorpion sent, 

To kill Latona was the dire intent ; 

Orion saved her, tho" hioiself was slain, 

But did for that a spacious place obtain 

In heaven : 'to thee my life,' said she, '■was dear 

And for thy ?7ierit shine illustrious there.' " 

Describe Le-^uth. 



J 12 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. |jtTl.ll, 

Although both Orion and Scorpio were honoured by the celestials wim « 

Slace among the stars, yet their situations were so ordered that when one rose 
le other should set, and vice versa ; so that they never appear in the same 
hemisphere at the same time. 

In the Hebrew zodiac this sign is allotted to Dan. because it is written, " Dan 
shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path." 



HERCULES. 

Hercules is represented on the map invested with the skin 
of the Nemaean Lion, holding a massy club in his right hand, 
and the three-headed dog Cerberus in his left. 

He occupies a large space in the northern hemisphere, 
with one foot resting on the head of Draco, on the north, and 
his head nearly touching that of Ophiuchus, on the south. 
This constellation extends from 12° to 50" north declination, 
and its mean right ascension is 255° ; consequently its centre 
is on the meridian about the 21st of July. 

It is bounded by Draco on the north, Lyra on the east, 
Ophiuchus or the Serpent-Bearer on the south, and the Ser- 
pent and the Crown on the west. 

It contains one hundred and thirteen stars, including one 
of the 2d, or of between the 2d and 3d magnitudes, nine of the 
3d magnitude, and nineteen of the 4th. The principal stai 
is Ras Algethi, is situated in the head, about 25° southeas* 
of Corona Borealis. It may be readily known by means oi 
another bright star of equal magnitude, 5° east, southeast ol 
it called Ras Alhague. Ras Alhague marks the head of 
Ophiuchus, and R-as Algethi that of Hercules. These two 
stars are always seen together, like the bright pairs in Aries, 
Gemini, the Little Dog, &c. They come to our meridian 
about the 28th of July, near where the sun dres, the last of 
April, or the middle of August. 

About midway between Ras Algethi on the southeast, and Ariadne's Cro^vn 
on the northwest, may be seen Beta and Gamma, two stars of the 3d magnitude, 
situated in the west slioulder, about 3° apart. The noi-thernmost of these two 
is called Rutilicus. 

Those four stars in the shap<> of a diamond, 8° or 10<^ southwest of the two 
in the shoulder of Hercules, are oJtuated in the head of the serpent. 

About 12° E. N. E. of Rutilicus, and 10^° directly north of Ras Algethi, are 
two stars of the 4th magnitude, in the east shoulder. They may be known by 
,wo very minute stars a little above them on the left. The two stars in catn 
ihoulder of Hercules, with Ras Algethi in the head, form a regular triangle. 

The left, or east arm of Hercules, which grasps the triple-headed mcfleter 
Cerberus, may be traced by means of three or four stars of the 4th magnitude, 

Howls the constellation Hercules represented? What space does it occupy, and 
what is its situation in the heavens? What men its declination and risht a.scenslon1 
When is its centre on the meridian? How is it t)ounded? What are the number and 
nvignitude of its stars? Describe the principal star. What do Ras Algethi ami Ras 
Alhague serve to mark? When are thev on our meridian? Dcicrihe the situa- 
tion ofBsta and Gamma. What is the norther nmoit ofthete two called 7 What four 
starts are situated 8° or 10° S. W. of the two in the shoulder J Describe the stars in the 
east ahoulder. How nmy these be knoum 7 What geometrical figure do the stars In 
the head and shoulders of Hercules form 7 How ntav the left arm of Hercules be tra- 
ced 7 



MAP ^.J HERCUL£3. 113 

situated in a row 3^ and 4° apart, extending from the shoulder, in a northeasterly 
direction. That small cluster, situated in a triangular lorm, about 14-' northeast 
of Has Algcthi, and 13^ east, southeast of the left shoulder, distinsuish the head 
of Cerberus. 

Euhteen or 20° northeast of the '^'\»\ca, are four stars of the 3d and itli mag. 
ititudes, formuig an irregidar squai,i, of which the two southern ones are about 
i^ apart, and in a line 6^ or 7° south oi the two northern ones, whicu are nearly 
"/^ apeirt. 

Pi, in the northeast corner, may be known by means of one or two other small 
stars, close by it, on the east. Eta, in tlie northwest comer, may be known by 
its being in a row with two smaller stars, extending towards tiis northwest, and 
about 4^ apart. The stars of the 4th magnitude, just south of the Dragon's head 
point out fh'^ left foot and ankle of Hercules. 

Sevei-al other star.s, of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, may be traced out in this 
eonstellation, by relerence to the map. 

History. — This constellation is intended to immortahze the name of Hercules, 
the Theban, so celebrated in antiquity for his heroic valour, and invincible 
prowess. According to the ancients, there were many persons of this name. Of 
aU tliese, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena is the most celebrated, and to him the 
actions of the others have been generally attributed. 

The biith of Hercules was attended with many miraculous events. He was 
brought up ai Tirynthus. or at Thebes, and before he had completed his eighth 
month, the jealousy of Juno, who was intent upon his destruction, sent two 
snakes to devour hiui. Not terrified at the sight of the serpents, he boldly seized 
tliem, and squeezed them to death, wliile his brother Iphicles alarmed the house 
with his frightful shrieks. 

He was early instructed in the hberal arts, and ooon became the piipil of the 
centaur Chiron, uuder whom he rendered himself the most valiant and accom- 
plished of all the heroes of antiquity. In the ISth year of his age, he com- 
menced his arduous and gloi'ious pursuits. He subdued a lion that devourea 
the flocks of his supposed fatner, Amphitryon. Alter he had destroyed the lion, 
he dehvered his coimtry from tlie annual tribute of a 'lundred oxen, which i* 
paid to Erginus. 

As Hercules, by the wiU of Jupiter, was subjectisd to the power of Eui-ystheus, 
and obliged to obey him in every respect, Eur>-stheu3. jealous of his rismg fame 
and power, ordered him to appear at Mycenae, and perform the labours wliicii, 
by priority of birth; he was empowered to impose upon him. Hercules refused, 
but afterivards consulted the oracle of Apollo, and was told that he must be sub- 
servient, for twelve years, to the will of Eurj^stheus, in compliance with the 
commands of Jupiter; and that, after he had achieved the most celebrated la- 
bours, he should be reckoned in the number of the gods. So plain an answer 
determined him to go to MyceucE, and to bear with fortitude whatever gods or 
men should impose upon him. Eurystheus, seeing so great a man totally sub- 
iectedto him, and apprehensive of "so pov.erful an enemy, commanded him to 
achieve a number of enterprises the most difficult and arduous ever known, 
generally called the Twel%-e LABOtrRS of Hercules. Being furnished with 
complete armour by the favour of the gods, he boldly encountered the imposed 
labours. 

1. He subdued the Nemsan Lion in his den, and invested himself with his 
skin. 

2. He destroyed the Lernaean Hydra, with a hundred hissing heads, and dip 
ped his arrows in the gall of the monster to render their wounds incurable. 

3. He took alive the stag with golden horns and brazen feet, so famous for its 
incredible swiftness, after pursuing it for twelve months, and presented it, un- 
hurt, to Eurystheus. 

4. He took alive the Erimanthian Boar, and killed the Centaurs who opposed 
him. 

5. He cleansed the stables of Augias, in which 3000 cxen had been coiifined 
for many years. 

6. Hekilled the camiverous birds which ravaged tl e country of Arcadia, and 
fed on human flesh. 

7. He took alive, and brought into Peloponnesus, the wild bull of Crete, which 
no mortal durst look upon. 

Hcno is the head, of Cerberus distinguished 7 There arefcnir stars in thL^oo-rr ^ffn 
irresular square, in the body of Hercules— describe them, describe i^e situ .iar t of 
Pi. 'Describe the situation of Eta. IMiat stars ■poim ou th^. icftfoot of Up ,>«. ? 

in* 



114 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. ( JULY 

S. He obtained for Eurystheus the mares of Diomedes, which fed on human 
flesn, after having given their owner to be first eaten by them. 

S. He obtained the girdle of the queen of the Amazons, a formidable nation of 
warUke females. 

10 He killed the monster Geryon, king of Gades, and brought away his na 
merous tlocks, which fed upon human llesh. 

11. He obtained the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides, whict 
were watched by a dragon 

12. And finally, he brought up to the earth the three-headed dog Cerberus, the 
guardian of the entrance to the infernal regions. 

According to Dupuis, the twelve labours of Hercules are only a figurative rep- 
resentation of the annual course of the sun through the twelve signs of the Zo- 
diac ; Hercules being put for the sun. inasmuch as it is the powerful planet which 
animates and imparts fecundity to the universe, and whose divinity has been 
honoured, in every quarter, by temples and altars, and consecrated in the reli- 
gious strains of all nations. 

Thus Virgil, in the eighth book of his .^neid, records the deeds of Herculea, 
and celebrates his praise :— 

"The lay records the labours, and the praise, 

And all the immortal acts of Hercules. 

Fir -t, how the mighty babe, when swath'd in bands, 

1 ue serpents strangled with his infant hands ; 

'i hen, as in years and matchless force he grew, 

The CT^chalian walls and Trojan overthrew ; 

Besides a thousand hazards they relate. 

Procured by Juno's and Euristheus' hate. 

Thy hands, unconquer'd hero, could subdue 

The cloud-born Centaurs, and the monster crew; 

Nor thy resistless arm the bull withstood ; 

Nor he, the roaring terrour of the wood. 

The triple porter of the Stygian seat 

With lolling tongue lay fawning at thy feet, 

And, seized with fear, forgot the mangled meat. 

The infernal waters trembled at thy sight : 

Thee, god, no face of danger could affright ; 

Nor huge Typhseus, nor the unnumber'd snake, 

Increased with hissing heads, in Lerna's lake." 
Besides these arduous labours which the jealousy of Eurystheus impo.sed upon 
him, he also achieved others of his own accord, equally celebrated. Before he 
delivered him.-elf up to the king of Mycenee he accompanied the Argonauts lo 
Colchis. He assisted the gods in their wars against the giants, and it was through 
him alone that Jupiter obtained the victory. He conquered Laomedon, and pil- 
laged Troy. 

At three different times he experienced fits of insanity. In the second, lie clew 
the brotlier of his beloved lole ; in the third he attempted to carry away the ga- 
ered tripod from Apollo's temple at Delphi, for which the oracle told him oe 
must be sold as a slave. He was sold accordingly to Omphale, queen of I.ydia, 
who restored him to liberty, and married him. " After this he returned to Pelo- 

Eonnesus, and re-established on the throne of Sparta his friend Tyndarus, who 
ad been expelled by Hippocoon. He became enamoured of Dcjanira, whom, 
after having overcome all his rivals, he married; but was obliged to lea\ e hja 
father-in-law's kingdom, because he hc.d inadvertently killed a man with a blow 
ef his fist. He retired to the court of Ceyx, king of Trachina. and in his way was 
stopped by the streams of the Evenus. where he slew the Centaur Nessu.^. for 
presuming to offer indignity to his beloved Dejanira. The Centaur, on expiring, 
Ijave to Dejanira the celebrated tunic which afterwards caused the death of Her- 
cules. ''This tunic." said the expiring monster, "has the virtue to recall a hu». 
aand from unlawful love " Dejanira, fearing lest Horcules should relap.se again 
into love for the beautif 1 lole, gave him the fatal tunic, which was so infected 
with the poison of the I.ernaean Hydra, that he had no sooner invested hlmsell 
with it, than it began to penetrate his bones, and to boil through all his vein*. 
He attempted to pull it off, but it was too late. 
"As the red iron hisses in the flood, 
So boils the venom in his curdling blood. 
Now with the greedy flame his entrails glow. 
And livid sweats down all his body flow ■. 



MAP V. I SERPENTAKIUS. 115 

The crackin? nerves, burnt up, are burst in twain, 
The lurking Venom melts his swimming brain." 
AS the distemper was incurable,, he implored the protection of Jupiter, gave 
his bow and arrow to Fhiloctetes, and erected a large burning pile on the top of 
Mount CEta. He spread on the pile the skin of the Nemsean lion, and laid him- 
self down upon it, as on a bed, leaning his head upon his club. Philoctetes set 
fire to the pile, and the hero saw himself, on a sudden, surrounded by the mosj 
appalling flames ; yet he did not betray any marks of fear or astonishment. Ju- 
piter saw him from heaven, and told the surrounding gods, who would have 
drenched the pile with tears, while they entreated that he would raise to the 
skies the immortal part of a hero who had cleared the earth from so many mon- 
sters and tyrants ; and thus the thunderer spake :— 

" Be all your fears forborne : 

Th' CEtean fires do thou, great hero, scorn. 

Who vanquish'd all things shall subdue the flame. 

That part alone of gross maternal frame 

Fire shall devour ; while what from me he drew 

Shall live immortal, and its force subdue : 

That, when he's dead, I'll raise to realms above ; — 

May all the powers the righteous act approve." 

Ovid's Met. lib. ix. 
Accordingly, after the mortal part of Hercules was consumed, as the ancient 
poets say, he was carried up to heaven in a chariot drawn by four horses 
"Quern pater omnipotens inter cava nubila raptum, 
Quadrijugo cuitu radiantibus intulit astius." 

" Almighty Jove 

In his swift car his honoured" offspring drove ; 
High o'er the hollow clouds the coursers fly, 
And lodge the hero in the starry sky." 

Ovid's Met. lib. ix. v. 271. 



SERPENTAKIUS, VEL OPHIUCHUS. 

The Serpent-Bearer is also called ^sculapius, or the 
god of medicine. He is represented as a man with a venera 
ble beard, having both hands clenched in the folds of a pro 
digious serpent, which is "writhing in his grasp. 

The constellation occupies a considerabfe space in the mid- 
heaven, directly south of Hercules, and west of Taurus Po- 
niatowski. Its centre is very nearly over the equator, oppo- 
site to Orion, and comes to the meridian the 26th of July. It 
contains seventy-four stars, including one of the 2d magni- 
tude, five of the 3d, and ten of the 4th. 

The principal star in Serpentarius is called Bas Alhague. 
It is of the 2d magnitude, and situated in the head, about 5° 
E. S. E. of Ras Algethi, in the head of Hercules. Ras Al- 
hague is nearly 13° N. of the equinoctial, while Rho., in the 
southern foot, is about 25° south of the equinoctial. These 
two stars serve to point out the extent of the constellation 
from north to south. Ras Alhagiie comes to the meridian on 
the 28th of July, about 21 minutes after Ras Algethi, 

How is the constellation Serpentarius represented? What is its extent, and where 
Is it situated? When is its centre on the meridian? What are the number and mag- 
nitude of its stars? What are the name and position of its principal star? What two 
stars mark the extremes of the constellation, north and south ? When is Ras Alhafiua 
en the meridian? 



116 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. f JCI.T 

About 10'^ S. W. of Ras Alhague are two small stars of tlie 4th maffniliido, 
scarcely more than a degree apart. They distinguish the left or west siiouJdcr 
Tiie northern one is marked luta, and the other Kappa. 

Eleven or twelve degrees S. S. E. of Ras Alhague are two other stars of the 3a 
oiaijiiiLude, in the east shoulder, and about 2^ apart. The upper me is called 
Cheleb, and the lower one Gamma. These stars in the head and s loulders of 
Serpentarius, form a triangle, with the vertex in Ras Alhague, and pointing to- 
wards the northeast. 

About 4° E. of Gamma, is a remarkable cluster of four or 
five stars, in the form of the letter V, with the open part to 
the north. It very much resembles the Hyades. This beau 
tiful litue group marks the face of Taurus Poniatowski. The 
solstitial colure passes through the equinoctial about 2° E. of 
the lower star in the vertex of the V. The letter name of this 
star is k. There is something remarkable in its central posi- 
tion. It is situated almost exactly in the mid-heavens, being 
nearly equidistant from the poles, and midway between the 
rernal and autumnal equinoxes. It is, however, about one 
and a third degrees nearer the north than the south pole, and 
about two degrees nearer the autumnal than the vernal equi 
nox, being about two degrees west of the solstitial colure. 

Directly south of the V, at the distance of about 12°, are two very small stara, 
about 2^ apart, situated in the right hand, where it grasps the serpent. Abou. 
halfway between, and nearly in a line with, the two in the hand and the two in 
the shoulder, is another star of the 3d inagnitvide, marked Zela, situated in th« 
Serpent, opposite the right elbow. It may be known by means of a minute star, 
just under it. 

Marsic, in the left arm, is a star of the 4th magnitude, about 10° S. W. of lot* 
and Cappa. About 7° farther in the same direction are two stars of the 3d mag 
nitude, situated in the hand, and a little more than a degree apart. The uppei 
one of the two, which is about 16° N. of Graffias in Scorpio, is called Yed : th» 
other is marked Epsilon. These two stars mark the other point in the folds of 
the monster where it is grasped by Serpentarius. 

The left arm of Serpentarius may be easily traced by means of the two stai* 
in the shoulder, the one (Marsic) near the elbow, and the two in the hand ; all 
lying nearly in a Une N. N. E. and S. S. W. In the same manner may the right 
arm be traced, by stars very similarly situated ; that is to say, first by the two 
h the east shoulder, just west of the V, thence S° in a southerly direction in- 
thning a little to the east, by Zeta. (known by a little star right under it,) and tlien 
by the two small ones in the right hand, situated about 6° below Zeta. 

About 12° from Antares, in an easterly direction, are two stars in the right 
foot, about 2° apart. The largest and lower of the two, is on the lefilip.nd. It is 
of between the 3d and 4th magnitudes, and marked Rho. There are several other 
stars in this constellation of the 3d and-ith magnitudes. They may be tnicedout 
from Uie maps. 

"Thee, Serpentarius, we behold distinct, 

With seventy/our refulgent stars ; and one 

Graces thy hehnet, of the second class: 

The Serpent, in thy hand grasp'd, winds his spire 

Immense ; fewer by ten his figure trace ; 

Describe the stars in the west shoulder of Serpentarius. llTiar stars di.stirtg-uish tf» 
east shoulder ? How are the^e two stars denominated 7 U'/iat is the relative posiiion 
of the stars in the head and shoulders? What remarkable cluster of stars in thia 
neighbourhood? To what constellation does this ?roup belong? How Is this clustel 
situated with respect t" »he solstitial colure? What is remarkable in the central jkisI 
tion of Kai)p:i? Describe the stars in the right hand of SerperUariuji. Describe ttu 
ntuation of 7Ma. Describe Marsic, and the two stars in the left hand. Which of tht 
*wo U called Yed, and hoio is it situated 1 Hoio n:aii the left arm of Serpentarias bi 
traced? IJmo may the ri^ht arm he traced? Describe the stars in the right fact qf 
Berperuarius. What other stars nuiy be traced tmt in this constellation 1 



MAP V\ I DRACO. 117 

One of the second rank ; ten shun the sight; 

And seven, he who bears the lyonster hides." — Eudosia. 
History. — This constellation was known to the ancients twelve hundred jeun 
before the Christian era. Homer mentions it. It is thus referred to in the k»- 
tronomicon of Manihus : — 

■'Next, Ophiuchus, strides the mighty snake, 

Untwists his winding folds, and smooths his back, 

Extends his bulk, and o'er the shppery scale 

His wide-stretch'd hands on either side prevail. 

The snake turns back his head, and -eems to rage : 

That war must last where equal power prevails." 

ff^sculapius was the son of Apollo, by Coronis, and was educated by Chiron 

the Centaur, in the art of medicme, m which he became so skilful, that he was 

considered the inventor and god of medicine. At the birth of ^Escidapius, the 

inspired daughter of Chiron uttered, "in sounding verse," this prophetic strain^ 

"Hail, great physician of the world, all hail ! 

Hail, mighty infant, who, in years to come, 

Shall heal the nations arid defraud the tomb ! 

Swift be thy growth ! thy triumphs unconfined ! 

Make kingdoms thicker, and increase mankind : 

Thy daring art shall animate the dead. 

And draw the thunder on thy guilty head : 

Then shalt thou die, but from the dark abode 

Rise up victorious, and be twice a god." 
He accompanied the Argonauts to Colchis, in the capacity of physician. He 
Is said to have restored many to life, insomuch that Pluto complained to Jupiter, 
that his dark dominion was in danger of being depopulated by his art. 

iEsculapius was worshipped at Epidaurus."a. city of Peloponnesus, and hence 
he is styled by Milton, " the god in Epidaurus." Being sent for to Rome in the 
time of a plague, he assumed the form of a serpent and accompanied the ambas- 
sadors, but though thus changed, he was yEsculapius still, in serpente dens, — 
the deity in a serpent, and under that form he continued to be worshipped at 
Rome. The cock and the serpent were sacred to him, especially the latter. 
The ancient physicians used them in their prescriptions. 

One of the last acts of Socrates, who is accounted the wisest and best man of 
Pagan antiquity, was to offer a cock to ^sculapius. He, and Plato, were both 
idolaters ; they conformed, and advised others to conform, to the religion of their 
coimtry ; to gross idolatry and absurd superstition. If the wisest and must learn- 
ed were so blind, what niust the foohsh and ignorant have been? 



CHAPTER X. 

BIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE CM 
THE MERIDIAN IN AUGUST. 

DRACO. 

The Dragon. — Tkis constellation, "which compasses a 
large circuit in the polar regions by its ample folds and con- 
tortions, contains many stars "which may be easily traced. 

From the head of the monster, which is under the foot of 
Hercules, there is a complete coil tending eastwardly, about 
17° N. of Lyra ; thence he winds down northerly about 14° 

"WTiat is the situation of the constellation Draco? Describe, if yrtv :.lcase. the van 
•us coils of the Dragon. 



ll8 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. Al 

10 the second coil, where he reaches almost to the girdie of 
Cepheus, then he loops down somewhat in the shape of the 
letter U, and makes a third coil about 15° below the first. 
From the third coil he holds a westerly course for about 13°, 
then goes directly down, passing between the head of the 
Lesser and the tail of the Greater Bear. 

This constellation contains eighty stars, including four ot 
the 2d magnitude, seven of the 3d, and twelve of. the 4th. 

"The Dragon next, winds like a mighty stream; 
Within its ample folds ai'e eighty stars, 
Four of the second order. Far he waves 
His ample spires, involving either Bear." 

The head of the Dragon is readily distinguished by means 
of four stars, 3°, 4°, and 5° apart, so situated as to form aa 
irregular square ; the two upper ones being the brightest, and 
both of the 2d magnitude. The righlhand upper one, called 
Etanin, has been rendered very noted in modern astronomy 
from its connexion with the discovery of a new law in phys- 
ical science, called the Aberration of Light. 

The letter name of this star is Gaimna^ or Gamma Draco- 
nis; and by this appellation it is most frequently called. The 
other bright star, about 4° from it on the left, is Rastaben. 

About 4° W. of Rastaben, a small star may, with close at 
tention, be discerned in the nose of the Dragon, which, with 
the irregular square before mentioned, makes a figure some- 
what resembling an Italic F, with the point towards the west, 
and the open part towards the east. The small star in the 
nose, is called Er Rakis. 

The two small stars 5° or 6° S. of Rastaben are in the left foot of Hercules. 
Rastaben is on the meridian nearly at the same moment 
with Ras Alhague. Etanin, 40° N. of it, is on the meridian 
about the 4th of August, at the same time with the three 
western stars in the face of Taurus Poniatowski, or the V. It 
is situated less than 2° west of the solstitial colure, and is 
exactly in the zenith of London. Its favourable position has 
led English astronomers to watch its appearance, for long 
periods, with the most exact and unwearied scrutiny. 

In the year 1725, Mr. Molynenx and Dr. Bradley fitted up a very accurate and 
costly instrument, in order to discover whether the fixed stars had any sensible 
parallax, while the earth moved from one extremity of its orbit to the other ; or 
which is the same, to determine whether the nearest fixed stars are situated at 
such an immense distance from the earth, that any star which is seen this nijiht 
directly north of us, will, six months hence, when we shall have gone 190 niill- 

What 's the course of the monster from the third coil? What are the numher and 
magnitude of the stars .--^ntained in this constellation? How is the head of the Onuron 
distinguished! Which star is called Etanin. and for what is it note<J? Bv what other 
appellation is it generally known? What stars in the hcau of Draco form' the letter V, 
and how is it situated? When is Rastahen on the neridian? When is Elanin on the 
meridian, and what stars in thi* roirion culminate at he snnie time? How isRasUibno 
•ituated with respect to the solstitial colure. and the tenith of London. 



MAP. VI.] DRACO. U9 

'nns ol mile- to the eastward of the place we are now in, be then seen exactly 
n Tth of us still, without changing its position so much as the thickness of a spi 
d-r's web. 

These observations were subsequently repeated, with but little intermission, 
foi twenty years, by the most acute observers in Europe, and with telescopea 
varying from 12 feet to 36 feet in length. In the meantime, Dr. Bradley had the 
h3nour of announcing to the world the very nice discovery, that the motion of 
kght, combined tcilh The progressive motion of the earth in its orbit, causes the 
heavenly bodies to be seen iii a different position from ichut they icouldbe, if 
the eye icere at rest. Thus was estabUshed the principle of the Aberration of 
Light. 

Tliis principle, or law, now that it is ascertained, seems not only very plaia 
but self-evident. For if light be progressive, the position of the telescope, iuordei 
to receive the ray, must be different from what it would have been, if light had 
been instantaneous, or if the earth stood still. Hence the place to which the tel- 
escope is directed, will be different from the true place of the object. 

Tne quantity of this aberration is determined by a simple proposition. Tho 
earth describes 59' 8" cf her orbit m a day =35iS", and a ray of hsht comes 
from the sun to us in 8' 13"= 493" : now 24 hours or 86400" : 493"7 : 3o4S" : 
22" ; which is the change in the star's place, ainsing from the cause abovemen- 
tioned. 

Of the four stars formmg tne irregular square in the head, the lower and right- 
hand one is 5P N. of Etanin. It is called Grumium. and is of the 3d magnitude. 
A lew degrees E. of the square, may be seen, with ahttle care, eight stars of the 
5th magnitude, and one of the 4th. which is marked Omicron, and lies 8° E. of 
Grumium. This group is in the first coil of the Dragon. 

The second coifis about 13^ below the first, and may be recognised by means 
of four stars of the 3d and 4th magnitudes, so situated as to form a small square, 
about half the size of that in the head. 

The brightest of them is on the left, and is marked Delta. A line drawn from 
Rastab en through GrumiuQi, and produced about 14'^ wiU point it out. A hne 
drawn from Lyra through Zi Draconis, and produced 10^ further, will point out 
Zeta, a star of the 3d magnitude, situated in the third coil. Zeta may other^vise 
be known, by its being nearly in a line with, and midway between, Etanin and 
Kochab. From Zeta, the reiuaining sters in this constellation are easily traced. 

E/a. Theta, and Asich. come next ; all stars of the 3d magnitude, and at the 
distance, severally, of 6^', 4°, and 5^ from Zeta. A1 Asich, the third star from 
Zeta, the tail of the Dragon makes a sudden crook. Thuban, Kappa^ and Chian- 
Bar, follow nest, and complete the taU. 

Thuhan, is a bright star of the 2d magnitude, 11° from 
Asich, in a line with, and about midway between, Mizar and 
the southernmost guard in the Little Bear. By nautical men 
this star is called the Dragon^s Tail, and is considered of 
much importance at sea. It is otherwise celebrated as being 
formerly the north polar star. About 2,300 years before the 
Christian era, Thuban was ten times nearer the true pole of 
the heavens than Cynosura now is. 

Kappa is a star of the 3d magnitude, 10^ from Alpha, between Megrez and the 
pole. Mizar and Megrez. in the tail of the Great Bear. form, with Thuban and 
Kappa, in the tail of the Dragon, a large quadrilateral figure, whose longest side 
is from Megrez to Kappa. 

Giansar. the last star in the tail, is between the 3d and 4tn magnitudes, and S'' 
from Kappa. The two pointers will also point out Giansar. lying at the distance 
of little more than S^ from them, and in the direction of the pole. 

Describe the stars in the ^^rst coil of Draco. Describe the stars in the second coil. 
W?iat is the brishtest of this group called, and how may it be pointed out?- '\Vhat is 
the principal star of tht third coil, and how may it be found 7 Hoio else may Zeta he 
known 7 MTiat stars come next to Zeta. in this constellation 7 ^Vhat stars follow 
these 7 Describe Thuhan. By what other name is this star known, and for what is it 
celebrated? When was Thuhan within ten minutes of the pole? Describe Kappa. 
What figure do Mizar and Megrez. in the tail of the Great Bear, form loith Thuban 
and Kappa, in the tail of the Dragon 7 Describe the position of Giansar, and teU nov 
it is pointed out. 



120 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [aUCL 

"Here the vast Dragon twines 

Between the Bears, and like a river winds, 
The Bears, that still with fearful caution keep, 
Untiuged beneath the surface of the deep." 

Warton'8 ViTgil, G. i. 

History. — Whoever attends to the situation of Draco, surrounding, as k aoea. 
llie pole of the Ecliptic, will perceive that its tortuous windinj^ are symbolical 
ef the oblique course of the stars. Draco also winds round the pole of the world, 
AS if to indicate, in the symbolical language of Euyptian astronomy, the motion 
of the pole of the Equator around the pole of the "Ecliptic, produced by the pre- 
eession of the heavens. The Egyptian hyeroglyphic for the heavens, m'Os a 
serpent, whose scales denoted the stars. When astronomy first began to be cul- 
tivated in Chaidea, Draco was the polar constellation. 

Mythologists, however, give various accounts of this constellation; by st-me 
it is represented as the watchful dragon which guarded the golden apples in the 
fsunous garden of the Hesperides,* near Mount Atlas in Africa ; and was slaiir. by 
Hercules. Juno, who presented these apples to Jupiter on the day of their nup- 
tials, took Draco up to heaven, and made a constellation of him, as a reward for 
his faithful services. Others maintain, that in the war with the giants, this dragon 
was brought into combat, and opposed to Minerva, who seized it in her hand, and 
hurled it, twisted as it was, into the heavens round the axis of the world, before 
it had time to unwind its contortions, where it sleeps to this day. Other writers 
of antiquity say, that this is the dragon killed by Cadmus, who was ordered ,">y 
D!s fatiier to go in quest of his sister Europa, whom Jupiter had carried a,w%j 
euxa never to return to Phoenicia without her. 

" When now Agenor had his daughter lost, 

He sent his son to search on every coast ; 

And sternly bade him to his arras restore 

The darling maid, or see his face no more." 
His search, however, provmg fruitless, he consulted the oracle of Apollo, and 
was ordered to build a city where he should see a heifer stop in the grass, and 
to call the country Boeotia. He saw the heifer according to the oracle, and as he 
wished to render thanks to the god by a sacrifice, he sent his companions to 
fetch water from a neighbouring grove. Tiie waters were sacred to Mars, and 
guarded by a most terrific dragon, who devoured all the messengers. Cadmus, 
tired of their seeming delay, went to the place, and saw tlie monster still feeding 
on their flesh. 

"Deep in the dreary den, conceal'd from day. 

Sacred to Mars, a mighty dragon lay, 

Bloated with poison to a monstrous size ; 

Fire broke in Hashes when he glanced his eyes: 

* Those who attempt to explain the mythology of the ancient-, observe that theHes- 
per-des were certain persons who had an immense number of flocks ; and that the 
ambiguous Greek word ^«xov, melon, which sometimes signifies an apple and some- 
ttmes a sheep, gave rise to the fable of the golden apple of these gardens. 

The " Hesperian gardens famed of old," as Milton observes, were so called from 
Ftsperus Vesper, because placed in the west, under the evening star. Some suppose 
them to have been situated near Mount Atlas, in Africa; others maintain that they 
were the isles about Cape Verd, whose most westerly point is still called He-sperivm 
Cornu, the Horn of the Hesperides ; while others contend, that they were the Canary 
Inlands. 

\tlas, said to have been conlemporarj' with Moses, was king of Mauritania, in the 
north part of Africa, and owner of a thousand flocks of ever>- kind. For refusing hos- 
pitality to Perseus, he was changed into the mountain that still bear.'? his name ; and 
which is so high, that the ancients imagined that the heavens rested upon its summit 
and consequently, that Atlas supported the world on his shoulders. Virgil has thla 
Idea, where he speaks of " Atlas, whose brawny back supports the skies ;" and H» 
fliod, verse 785, advances the same notion :— 

"Atlas, so hard necessity ordains. 
Erect, the ponderous vault of stars sustains. 
Not far from the Hesperides he stands. 
Nor from the load retracts his head or hands." 

From this very ancient and whimsical notion. Atlas is represented by artists, and 1b 
■■yorks of mythi log>', as an old man l>earinc the worlil on his shoulrters. Hence it !«• 
lim* a collection of maps, embra-iing the whole world, is called an AtUu, 



MAP r ] LYRA. 121 

flis towering crest was glorious to behold, 

His shoulders and his sides were scaled with gold 

Three tongues he brandish'd when he charged his foes. 

His teeth stood jaggy in three dreadful rows 

The Tyrians in the den for water sought, 

A.nd with their urns explored the hollow vault: 

From side to side their empty urns rebound, 

And rouse the sleeping serpent with their sound 

Straight he bestirs him. and is seen to rise ; 

And now with dreadful hissings fills the skies, 

And darts his forky tongues, and rolls his glaring eyes. 

The Tyrians drop'their'vessels in the fright, 

All pale and trembling at the hideous sight. 

Spire above spire uprear'd in air he stood, 

And gazing round him. overlook'd the wood: 

Then floating on the groimd in circles roll'dj 

Then leap'd upon them in a mighty fold. 

All their endeavours and their hopes are vain ; 

Some die entangled in the ■winding train ; 

Some are devoured, or feel a loathsome death, 

SwoU'n up with blasts of pestilential breath." 
Cadmus, beholding such a scene, boldly resolved to avenge, or to share tnair 
iate. He theretbre attacked the monster with slings and arrows, and with tne 
assistance of Minerva, slew him. He then plucked out his teeth, and sowed 
them, at the command of Pallas, in a plain, when they suddenly spnmg up into 
armed men. 

" Pallas adest : motseque jubet supponere terrsB 

Viperos denies, populi incrementa futuri. 

Paret : et, ut presso sulcum patefecit aratro, 

Spargit humi jussos. mortaha semina denies. 

Inde (fide majus) glebae ceepere moveri: 

Primaque de sulcis acies apparuit hasts 

Tegmina mox capilmn picto nutantia cono . 

Existunl : crescitque seges clypeata virorura." 

Ovid's Met. lib. iii. v. 102. 
"He sows the teeth at Pallas's command. 

And flings the future people from liis hand. 

The clods grow warm, and crumble where he sows; 

And now the pointed spears advance in rows ; 

Now nodding plumes appear, and shining crests, 

Now the broad shoulders and the rising breasts ; 

O'er all the field the breathing harvest swarms, 

A growing host ! a crop of men and arms !" 

Entertaining worse apprehension from the direful offspring than he had done 
from the dragon himself, he was about to fly. when they all fell upon each other 
and were all slain in one promiscuous carncige, except five, who assisted Cadmti* 
to build the city of BcEotia. 



LYRA. 

The Harp. — This cocstellation is distinguished by one of 
the most brilliant stars in the northern hemisphere. It is sit- 
uated directly south of the first coil of Draco, between the 
Swan, on the east, and Hercules, on the west; and when on 
the meridian, is almost directly oyer head. 

It contains twenty-one stars, including one of the 1st mag- 
nitude, two of the 3d, and as many of the 4th. 

Ev what is the constellation of the Harp distinguished? "WTiere is it. situated} What 
are the number and magnitude of its stars ? 
11 



122 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. \ AVB 

'There Lyra, for the brightness of her stars, 
More than their number tininent ; thrice seven 
She counts, and one of tJiese illuminates 
The heavens far around, blazing imperia. 
In the Jir^l order." 

This star, of " the first order, blazing with iinptrial" lustre, 
is called Vega, and sometimes Wega; but more frequently 
it is called Lyra, after the name of the constellation. 

There is no possibility of mistaking this star for any other. 
It is situated 14f ° S. E.'of Etanin, and about 30^' N. N. E. of 
Ras Alhague and Ras Algethi. It may be certainly known 
by means of two small, yet conspicuous stars, of the 3th mag- 
nitude, situated about 2° apart, on the east of it, and making 
with it a beautxful little triangle, with the angular point at 
Lyra. 

The northernmost of these two small stars is marked Epsilon, and the south- 
ern one, Zeta. About 2° S. E. of Zeta, and in a line with Lyra, is a star of the 
4th ma^jniiude, marked Delta, in the middle of the Harp : and 4° or 5° S. o! 
Delta, are two stars of the 3d niajmitude, about 2^ apart, in the garland of liie 
Harp, forming another triangle, whose vertex is in Delta. The .star on the t^ast, 
is marked Gamma; that on the west. Beta, If a line be drawn from Etamn 
through Lyra, and produced 6° farther, it will reach J$eta. 

This is a variable star, changing from the 3<1 to nearly the 5th magnitude in thfl 
space of a week; it is supposed to have spots on its surface, and to turn on its 
axis, like our sim. 

Ganuna comes to the meridian 21 minutes after Lyra, and precisely at the 
same moment with Epsilon, in the tail of the Eagle, 17^"° S. of it. 

The declination of Lyra is about 38f" N.; consequently 
when on the meridian, it is but 2^ S. of the zenith of Hart- 
ford. It culminates at 9 o'clock, about the ISth of August. 
It is as favourably situated to an observatory at Washington, 
as Rastaben is to those in the vicinity of London. 

Its surpassing brightness has attracted the admiration of 
astronomers in all ages. Manilius, who wrote in the age of 
Augustus, thus alludes to it : — 

" One, placed in front above the rest, displays 
A vigorous light and darts surprising rays." 

AstroTiomicon, B. i. p. 15. 

History. — It is generally asserted that this is the celestial Lyre which Apolw 
or Mercury gave to Orpheus, and upon which he played with' such a ma.'Jierly 
hand, that even the most rapid rivers ceased to flow, the wild beasts of the Ihreni 
forgot their wildness, and the moimtains came to listen to his song. 

Of all the nymphs who used to li-sten to his song. Etirydice was the only one 
who made a deep impression on the musician, and their nuptials were :elebni 
ted. Their happiness, however, was short. AristaMis became enamojred of 
Eurydice, and as she fled from her pursuer, a serpent, lurkin? in the zrass, bit 
her foot, and she died of the wound. Orpheus resolved to recover h-'r. or ]icrisb 
in the attempt. With his lyre in his hand, he enterod the infernal regions, and 
gained admission to Pluto. The king of hell was charmed with his strains, the 

What is the n.ime of the principal star? Desrrihe its position. Bv what means may 
It be certainly known? What are the name" rtfthe frro sinatt stars forming the. base i\f 
the triangle? Describe the itar in the middle of the Harp, and those with which U 
forma another triangle. Horn are the stars in the ba-ie of thii triangle marked on the 
map ? How else may Beta be pointed out 1 What is there renwrkable in the appear- 
a.nce of this star? When is Gamma on the meridian? Vhat is the declination o| 
Lyra? When does it culminate' What ancient poet mentions it? 



Map V.\ LYBA. 123 

wLetl of Lrion stopped, the stone of Sisyphus stood still, Tantalus forgot hia 
thirst, and even the furies relented. 

I'iuto and Proserpine were moved, and consented to restore him Eurydice, 
provided he forbore looking behind him till he had come to the extremes! bor- 
ders of their dark dominions. The condition was accepted, and Orpheus was 
already in sight of the upper regions of the air, when he forgot and turned back 
to look at hiis long lost Eurydice. He saw her, but she insiantly vanished from 
his sight. He attempted again to follow her, but was refused admission. 

From this time. Orpheus separated himself from the society of mankind, which 
so otTended the Thracian women, it is said, that they tore his' body to pieces, anri 
tlirew^ his head into the Hebrus, still articulating the words Eurid'ice ! Euiydice ' 
as it was carried down the stream into the iEgean sea. Orpheus was one of the 
Argonauts, of which celebrated expedition he wrote a poetical account, which is 
still extant. After his death, he received divine honours, and his lyre became 
one of the constellations. 

This fable, or allegory, designed mei-ely to represent the power of music in 
the Viands of the great aiaster jf the science, is similarly described by three of 
the most renowned Latin poets. Virgil, in the fourth book of his Georgics, thus 
describes the effect of the lyre : — 

"E'en to the dark dominions of the night 

He took his way, through forests void of light, 

And dared amid the trembling ghosts to sing, 

And stood before the inexorable king. 

The infernal troops like passing shadows glide, 

And listening, crowd the sweet musician's side ; 

Men, matrons, children, and the unmarried maid, 

The mighty hero's more majestic shade, 

And youth' on funeral piles before their parents laid. 

E'en'from the depths of hell the damn'd advance ; 

The infernal mansions, nodding, seem to dance ; 

The gaping three-mouth'd dog forgets to snarl; 

The furies hearken, and their snakes uncurl ; 

Ixion, seems no more his pain to feel, 

But leans attentive on his siandins wheel. 

A.11 dangers past, ^t lensth the lonely bride 

In safety goes, with her melodioiis guide." 

Tythagoras and his followers represent Apollo playing upon a harp of seven 
stiiugs, by which is meant (as appears from Pliny, b. if. c. 22— Macrobius i. c. 
19. and Censorinus c. ii.) the svm in conjunction with the seven planets ; for they 
nu de him the leader of that septenary chorus, and the moderator of nature, and 
tlh ught that by his attractive force he acted upon the planets in the harmonica! 
raiio of their distances. 

Ihe doctrine of celestial harmony, by which was meant the music of the 
spheres, was common to all the nations of the East. To this divine music Euri- 
pides beautifully aUudes: — ''Thee I invoke, tliou self created Being, who gave 
bir.h to Nature, and whom light and darkness, and the whole train of globes en- 
circle with eternal music."— So also Shakspeare : — 

"Look, how the floor of heaven 

Is thick inlaid with patines of bright sold ; 
There's not the smallest orb. which thou behold'st, 
But in his motion like an angel sings. 
Still quiring to the youns-eyed cherubim : 
Such harmony is in immortal souls ; 
But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay 
Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it " 

The lyre was a fabaous stringed instrument, much used among the ancienfji, 
eaid to have been invented by Mercury about the year of the world2000 ; though 
some ascribe the inveuion to Jubal. (Genesis iv. 21.) It is universally allowed, 
ihat the lyre was the first in-trument of the string kino ever used in Greece. 
The different lyres, at various periods of time, had from four to eighteen strings 
«ach. The modern lyre is the Welsh harp The lyre, among p^ainters, is an 
attribute of Apollo and the Muses 

All poetry, it has hem conjectured, was in its origin lyric ; that is, adapted to 
recitation or song, v-rth he accomj^animent of music and distinguished by the 



124 PICTCRE OF THE HEAVENS. f ADO 

utUiOsf, boAiiiess of thought and expression; being at first employed in celebra 
ti/ig llie praises of gods and heroes. 

l<esl)Os was the principal seat of the Lyric Muse ; and Terpander, a native of 
this island, who flourished about 650 years B. C, is one of the earliest of the 
lyric poets whose name we find on record. Sappho, whose misfortunes have 
united with her talents to render her name memorable, was born at Mitylene, the 
chief city of Lesbos. She was reckoned a tenth muse, and placed without con- 
troversy at the head of the female writers m Greece. But Pmdar, a na/ive of 
Thebes, wlio flourished about 500 years B. C, is styled the prince of lyric poets. 
To him his fellow-citizens erected a monument; and when the Lacedenumiana 
ravaged Bogotia, and burnt the capital, the following words were written 'ipon 
the door of the poet: Forbear to burn this house. It was the dwelling op 
Plndar. 



SAGITTARIUS. 

The Archer. — This is the l nth sign and the tenth con- 
stellation of the Zodiac. It is situated next east of Scorpio, 
with a mean declination of 35° S. or 12'^ below the ecliptic. 

The sun enters this sign on the 22d of November, but does 
not reach the constellation before the 7th of December. 

It occupies a considerable space in the southern hemisphere, 
and contains a number of subordinate, though very conspicu- 
ous stars. The whole number of its visible stars is sixty- 
nine, including five of the 3d magnitude, and ten of the 4th. 

It may be readily distingul^hed by means of five stars of 
the 3d and 4th magnitudes, forming a figure resembling a 
little short, straight-handled Dipper, turned nearly bottom up- 
wards, with the handle to the west, familiaj-ly called the 
Milk-Dipper, because it is partly in the Milky-Way. 

This little figure is so conspicuous that it cannot easily be 
mistaken. It is situated about 33^' E. of Antares. and comes 
to the meridian a few minutes after Lyra, on the 17th of Au- 
gust. Of the four stars forming the bowl of the Dipper, the 
two upper ones are only 3° apart, and the lower ones 5°. 

The two smaller stars forming the handle, and extending westerly about 4i°, 
and the easternmost one in the bowl of the Dipper, are all of the 4th magnitude. 
The star in the end of the handle, is marked Lamhcla, and is placed in the bow 
of Sagittarius, just within the Milky- Way. Lambda may otherwise be known 
by its' being nearly in a line with two other stars about 4J° ajiart, extending to- 
wards the S. E. It is also equidistant from Phi and Delta, with wiiich it makea 
a handsome triangle, with the vertex in Lambda. About 5° above Lambda and 
1 little to the west, are two stars close together, in the en*l of the bow. the bright- 
est of which is of the 4th magnitude, and marked Mu. TJiis star serves to p<-in| 
out the winter solstice, being about 2^ N. of the tropic of Capricorn, and liss 
•Jrian one degree east of the solstitial colure. 

If a line be drawn from Sigma through Phi. and produced about 6° farther to 
the west, it will point out Delta, and produced about 3° from Delia, it will point 
out Gamma ; stars of the 3d magnitude, in the arrow. The latter is in tiie point 

Wha; is the order in ihe Zodiac, of Sajjittarius? How is it situated) When di>es 
the sun ajjijear to enter this constellation? What are its extent and ajipcarance? What 
are llie number and mairnitude of its stars? How may it be readily di.';tinguishe<il 
What is this figure called, and why ? Where is this figure to be found, and when is It 
■>n the meridian? How far apart are the two uiJiier stars in the bowl of the Dipix-rJ 
How far apart are the two lower ones? Describe the starn in the handle. Dencribe the 
position of Lambda. Hoio may La^nhda he otheririsc tnoivn ? With what oth/ir stan 
does it form, a handsome triangle! Dencrit^e the poniHon qfMu. iloxo may Delta and 
OamsTM he pointed out t 



MAP V.J AaUlLA. ET ANTINOUS. 125 

of ilie arrow, and may be known by means of a small star just above it, on the 
rig:.c Tnis star is so nearly on the" same meridian With Etanin, in the head of 
Draco, that it culminates only two minutes after it. 

A few other conspicuous stars in this constellation, forming a variety of geo- 
metrical figures, may be easily traced from the map. 

History. — ^This constellation, it is said, commemorates the famous Centaur 
Chiron, son of Philyra and Saturn, who changed himself into a horse, to elude 
the jealous inquiries of his wife Rhea. 

Chiron was famous for his knowledge of music, medicine, and shooting. He 
taught mankind the use of plants and medicinal herbs ; and instructed, in all the 
Dolite arts, the greatest hei-oes of his age. He tauglit iEsculapius phytic; 
Apollo music; and Hercules cLStronnmy; and was tutor to Achilles, Jason, and 
Eneas. According to Ovid, he was slam by Hercules, at the river Evenus, for 
.ffering indignity to his newly married bride. 

" Thou monster double shap'd, my right set free — 
Swift as his words, the fatal arrow flew : 
The Centaur's back admits the feather'd wood, 
And ilirough his breast the barbed weapon stood ; 
"VViiicJi, when in anguish, through the liesh he tore, 
From both the wounds gush'd forth the spumy gore." 
The arrow which Hercules thus sped at the Cemaur, having been dipped in 
iie blood of the Lerucean Hydra, rendered the wound incurable, even by the 
father of medicine himself, and he begged Jupiter to deprive him of immortahty, 
if thus he might escape his excruciating pains. Jupiter granted his request, aiid 
translated him to a place among the constellations. 

''Midst golden stars he stands refulgent now, 
And thrusts the scorpion with his bended bow." 
Tliis is the Grecian account of Sasittarius ; but as this constellation appears on 
the ancient zodiacs of Egypt, Dendera, Esne, and India, it seems conclusive that 
the Greeks only bor voiced the ^figure, while [he j invented the fable. Tliis ia 
known to be true with respect to very many of tlie ancient constellations. 
Hence the jai'gon of the conflicting accounts which have descended to us. 



AaUILA, ET ANTINOUS. 

The Eagle, and Antinous. — This double constellation is 
situated directly south of the Fox and Goose, and between 
Taurus Poniatowski on the west, and the Dolphin, on the 
east. It contains seventy-one stars, including one of the 1st 
magnitude, nine of the 3d, and seven of the 4th. It may be 
readily distinguished by the position and superior brilliancy 
of its principal star. 

Altair, the principal star in the Eagle, is of the 1st, or be- 
tween the. 1st and 2d magnitudes. It is situated about 14° S. 
W. of Dolphin. It may be known by its being the largest 
and middle one of the three bright stars which are arranged 
in a line bearing N. W. and S. E. The stars on each side 
of Altair, are of the 3d magnitude, and distant from it about 
20. This row of stars very much resembles that in the 
Guards of the Lesser Bear. 

not9 is Gamma situated loith respect to Etanin ? In what part of the heavens is the 
Eagle situated? What are the number and magnitude of its stars? How is it distin- 
guished? Describe its principal star. How mav it be known? What is the ma^niuide 
of he stars on each side of Altair? How far distant from it are they? What "row rH 
^'-j-s docs this row resemble ? 

11* 



126 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [aUO. 

Altair is one of the stars from which the moon's distanc* 
is taken for computing longitude at sea. Its mean declination 
is nearly 8^^ N., and when on the meridian, it occupies 
nearly the same place in the heavens that the sun does at 
noon on the 12th day of April. It culminates about 6 minutes 
before 9 o'clock, on the last day of August. It rises acrony- 
cally about the beginning of June. 

Ovid alludes to the rising of this constellation ; or, more probably, to that of 
the principal star, Altair :— 

"Now view the skies, 

And you'll behold Jove's hook'd-bill bird arise." 

Massey's Fasti 

"Among thy splendid group 

One dubious whether of the second rank, 
Or to the FmsT entitled ; but whose claim 
Seems to deserve the First.'- 

Eudosia. 
The northernmost star in the line, next above Altair. is called Tarazed. In 
the wing of the Eagle, there is another row composed of three stars, situated 4° 
or 5° apart, extending down towards the southwest ; the middle one in this line 
is the smallest, being only of the 4th magnitude ; the next is of the 3d magnitude, 
marked Delta, and situated 8° S. W. of Altair. 

As you proceed from Deltei, there is another line of three stars of the 3d mag 
oitude, between 5° and 6° apart, extending southerly, but curving a little to th« 
west, which mark the youth Antinous. The northern wing of the Eagle is not 
distinguished by any con.spicuous stars. 

Zela and Epsilon. of the 3d magnitude, situated in the tail of the Eagle, are 
about 2" apart, and 12° N. W. of Altair. The last one in the tail, marked Epsi- 
lon, is on the same meridian, and cuhninates the same moment with Gamma, in 
the Harp. 

From Epsilon, in the tail of the Eagle, to Theta, in the wrist of Antinous, may 
be traced a long line of stars, chiefly of the 3(i magnitude, whose letter namea 
are Theta, Eta, Mu, Zeta, and Epsilon. The direction of this Une is from S. E. 
to N W., and its length is about 25°. 

Eta is remarkable for its changeable appearance. Its greatest brightness con- 
tinues but 40 hours ; it then gradually dimini.<hes for 66 hours when its lustre 
remains stationary for 30 hours. It then waxes brighter and brighter, until it 
appears agiin as a star of the 3d magnitude. 

From these phenomena, it is inferred that it not only has spots on its surface, 
5ke our sun, but that it also turns on its axis. 

Similar phenomena are observable in Algol, Beta, in the Hare, Delta, in Ce- 
Dheus, and Omicron, in the Whale, and many others. 

" Aquila the next, 

Divides the ether with her ardent wing : 
Beneath the Sican, nor far from Pegasus, 
Poetic Eagle." 
History.— Aquila, or the Eagle, is a constellation usually joined with Antinou*. 
Aquila. is supposed to have been Merops, a king of the island of Cos, in the Ar- 
chipelago, and the husband of Clymene, the mother of Phaeton; this mf)naich 
having been transformed into an eagle, and placed among the conslellations. 
Some have imagined that Aquila was the eagle whose form Jupiter assumed 
when he carried away Ganymede ; others, that it represents the eagle which 
brought nectar to Jupiter while he lay concealed in the cave at Crete, to avoid 



Of what importance is this star at sea? What Is its declination? What place iloei 
It occupy in the heavens when nn the meridian, ami when does it culminate? When 
does it rise acronycally? Describe the position ofTarazfd. Describe the rmo ofslan 
in the loing of the Eagle. Describe the rmc qf ifars wnich mark the youth Antinotu. 
IVhat stars tn the northern wing) Describe Zeta and Epsilon. When is Epsilon on 
i,he meridian ? ll'hat long nne of stars terminates at Epsilon ? Wiint are the direc- 
tion and extent of thit. line/ Describe the remarkable appearance of Eta. What ia 
inferred from th-ese phenomena? 



MAP V.J DELPHINUS. 127 

the fury of his father, Saturn. Some of the ancient poets lAy, that this is the 
eagle which furnished Jupiter with weapons in his war with the giants; — 
"The tow' ring Eagl^ next doth boldly soar, 
As if the thunder in his claws he bore ; 
He's worthy .Jove, since he, a bird, supplies 
The heaven with sacred bolts, and arms the skies." 

Manilius. 
The eagle is justly styled the "sovereign of birds." since he is the largest, 
strongest, and swiftest of all the feathered"" tribe that live by prey. Homer calla 
the eagle, '• the strong sovereign of the plumy race ;" Horace e-lyies him — 
"The royal bird, to whom the king of heaven 
Tae empire of the feather'd race has given :" 
And Milton denominates the eagle the "Bird of Jove." Its sight is quiek. 
Btrong and piercing, to a proverb : Job xxix. 2S. &c. 

"Though strong the hawk, though practis'd well to fly, 
An eagle drops her in the lower sky ; 
An eagle when deserting human sigiit. 
She seeks the sun in her unwearied llight ; 
Did thy command her yellow pinion hft 
So high in air, and set her on the clift 
Where far above thy world she dwells alone. 
And proudly makes the strength of rocks her o-^ti ; 
Thence wide o'er nature takes her dread survey, 
Ajid with a glance predestinates her prey ! 
She feasts her young with blood; and hov'ring o'er 
Th' unslaughter'd host^ enjoys the promis'd gore." 

ANTINOUS. 
Antirous is a part of the constellation Aquila, and was invented by Tycho 
Brahe. Ajitinous was a youth of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. So greatly was his 
oealij lamented by the emperor Adrian, that he erected a temple to his memory, 
an*' cuilt in honour of him a splendid city, on the banks of the Nile, the ruins ox 
W'th are still visited by travellers with much interest. 



CHAPTER XL 

JIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE ON 
THE MERIDIAN IN SEPTEMBER. 

DELPHINUS. 

The Dolphin. — This beautiful little cluster of stars is sit- 
uated 13° or 14° N. E. of the Eagle. It consists of eighteen 
stars, including five of the 3d magnitude, but none larger. It 
is easily distinguished from all others, by means of the four 
principal stars in the head, which are so arranged as to form 
the figure of a diamond, pointing N. E. and S. W. To many, 
this cluster is known by the name of JoVs Copin ; but from 
whom, or from what fancy, it first obtained this appellation, 
is not known. 

Where is the constellation Delphinus situated? What are the number and magiil- 
taJe of its stars ? How is this constellation >j'stinguished from all others i What sin- 
gular name Is sometimes given to this cluster, and whence was it deriveil ^ 



128 PICTL'KL OF THE HEAVENS. [sEPT. 

There is another star of the 2d magnitude, situated in the 
body of the Dolphin, about 3° S. W. of the Diamond, and 
marked Epsilon. The other four are marked Alpha, Bp.ta^ 
Gainma^ Delta. Between these are several smaller stars, too 
small to be seen in presence of the moon. 

The mean declination of the Dolphin is about 15° N, 
It comes to the meridian the same moment with Deneb 
Cygni, and about 50 minutes after Altair, on the 16th of 
September. 

"Thee I behold, majestic Cygnus, 
On the marge dancing of the heavenly sea, 
Arion's friend; eighteen thy stars appear — 
One telescopic." 
History. — The Dolptiin, according to some mythologists, was made a constel- 
la/.ion by Neptmie, because one of these beautiful fishes had persuaded the god- 
dess Aniphitrite, who had made a vow of perpetual celibacy, to become the wife 
of that deity; but others aiaiutain, that it is the dolphin which preserved the 
famous lyric poet and musician Ariori, who was a native of Lesbos, an island in 
the Archipelago. 

He went to Italy withPeriander, tyrant of Corinth, where he obtained immense 
riches by his profession. Washing to revisit his native country, the saihirs ol 
the ship in which he embarked, resolved to uiurder him, and get possession of 
his wealth. Seeing them inmioveable in their resolution, Arion begsed penuis 
sion to play a tune upon his lute before he should be put to death. The melody 
of the instrument attracted a nuuiber of dolphins around ir.'P ship ; he innnt.'di 
ately precipitated himself into the sea ; when one of them, it is asserted, carriec 
him' safe on his back to Taenarus, a promontory of Laconia, in Peloponnesus, 
whence he hastened to the court of Periander, who ordered all the sailors to hr 
crucified at their return. 

"But, (past behef ) a dolphin's arched back 
Preserved Arion from his destined wrack ; 
Secure he sits, and with harmonious strains 
Requites his bearer for his friendly pains." 
When the famous poet Hesiod was murdered in Naupactum, a city of JEinUa 
, In Greece, and his body thrown into the sea, some dolphins, it is said. brout:!t 
back the lioating corpse to the shore, which was immediately recognised by hit 
friends ; and the assassins being afterwards discovered by the dogs of the de- 
parted bard, were put to death, by immersion in the same sea. 

Taras, said by some to have been the founder of Tarentum, now Tarcnto, in 
the south of Italy, was saved irom shipwreck by a dolphin ; and the inhahiianta 
of that city preserved the memory of this extraordinary event on their coin. 

The natural shape of the dolphin, however, is not incurvated. so that on« 
might ride upon its back, as the poets imagined, but almost straiL'ht. When it 
is first taken from the water, it exhibits a variety of exquisitely beaiitifid hut 
evanescent tints of colour that pass in succession over its body until it dies. 
They are an extremely swift-swimming fish, and are capable of living a lonj; 
time out of water ; in fact, they seeni to delight to gambol, and leap out of their 
na tve element. 

'•Upon the swelling waves the dolphins show 
Their bending backs; then swiftly darting go, 
And in a thousand wreaths their bodies sliow." 



CYGNUS. 

The Swan. — This remarkable constellation is situated in 
*he Milky-Way, directly E. of Lyra, and nearly on the same 

Mention some Cher stars in the Doli)hin, What is the mean declination of the \yA 
phin, anil when is it on the meridian'. In what part of the heavens is the constellatio 
Qygnus situated? 



M.VP V. I CYGNU3. 129 

meridian with the Dolphin. It is represented on outspread 
wings, flying down the Millrj^-Wav, tow^ards the scuthw^esl. 

The principal stars which mark the wings, the body and 
the bill ol' Cygnus, are so arranged, as to form a large and 
regular Cj^oss ; the upright piece lying along the Mijky- 
Way from N. E. to S. W., w^hile the cross piece, repre- 
senting the wings, crosses the other at right angles, from 
S. E. to N. W. 

Arided, or Deneb Cygni, in the body of the Swan, is a 
star of the 1st magnitude, 24° E. N. E. of Lyra, and 30° di- 
rectly N. of the Dolphin. It is the most brilliant star in the 
constellation. It is situated at the upper end of the cross, 
and comes to the meridian at 9 o'clock, on the 16th of Sep- 
tember. 

Sad'r, is a star of the 3d magnitude, 6^ S W. of Deneb, situated exactly in the 
cross, or where the upright piece intersects the cross piece, and is about 20° E. 
of Lyra. 

Delta, the principal star m the west wing, or arm uf the cross, is situated N. 
W. of Sad'r, at the distance of little more than 8^, and is of the 3d magnitude. 
Beyond DeltEu towards the extremity of the wing, are two smaller stars aboi7t 5° 
apart, and incUning a little obliquely to the north; the last of which rearhea 
nearly to the first coil of Uraco. These stars mark tiie west wing ; the east wing 
may be traced by means of stars very similarly situated. 

Gienah, is a star of the 3d magnitude, in the east wing, just as far east of Sad'r 
in the centre of the cross, as Delta is west of it. This row of three equal stars, 
Delta, Sad'r, and Gienah, form the bar of the cross, and are equidistant from 
each father, being about 8° apart. Beyond Gienah on the east, at the distance of 
go Qj- 70 there are iwo other stars of the 3d magnitude ; the last of which marks 
the extremity of the eastern wing. 

The stars in the neck are all too small to be noticed. There is one. however, 
bi the beak of tlie Swan, at the foot of the cross, called Albireo. which is of the 
3d magnitude, and can be seen very plainly. It is about 16° S. W. of Sad'r, and 
about the same distance S. E. of Lyra, with which it m.akes nearly a right anscle. 

"In the small space between Sad'r and Albireo," says Dr. Herschel, "the stars 
In the Milky-Way seem to be clustering into two separate divisions ; each divi- 
sion containing more than one hundred and sixty -five thousand stars.'' 

Albireo bears northerly from Alfair about •2Ci°. Immediately south and south- 
east of Albireo, may be seen the Fox and Goose ; and about midway between 
Albireo and Altair, there may be traced a line of four or five minute stars, called 
the Arrow; the head of which is on the S. W., and can be distinguished by 
means of two stars situated close together. 

According to the British catalogue, this constellation con- 
tains eighty-one stars, including one. of the 1st or 2d mag- 
nitude, six of the 3d, and twelve of the 4th. The author 
of the following beautiful lines, says there are one hundred 
and seven. 

"Thee, silver Swan, who. silent, chxi o'erpass? 
A hundred with seven radiant stars compose 
Thy graceful form : amid the lucid stream 

How is it represented? What remarkable fisaire is formed by its principal stars? 
Describe the position and appearance of Arided, or Deneh Cysni. When does it cul- 
minate at 9 o'clock? Describe the 'pontion of Sad'r. Describe Delta, mat stars be- 
yond Delta 7 What stars in the east xoing 7 What stars form the bar of the cross J 
What stars beyond Gienah on the taut 7 Describe the stars in the neck and bill of the 
Bwan. Uoio is the star in the bill situated with respect to Sad'r and Lyra7 What 
clusters south end sautheast of Albireo 7 What are the number and magnitudi. of the 
•tars in the iSwan J 



130 FICTLRE OF THE HEAVENS. | SEPT. 

Of the fair Milky-Way distiiiiiuisn'rl ; one 

Adorns ilie second order, wliere she cul." 

The waves that follow in her utmost track ; 

This never hides its fire througliout tiie night, 

And of the rest, the ujoru conspicuous mark 

Her snowy pinions and refulgent neck.'-— A'Mdoaio, b. iv 
Astronomers have discovered three variable stars in the Swan. Chi, situated 
Li the neck, between Beta and Sad'r, was first observed to vary its briglitnes)*, 
m 1G86. hs periodica] changes of light are now ascertained tc be comi>lcted in 
405 days. <S'ati'r is also changeal)le. Its greatest lustre is somewhat less than thai 
of a star of the 3d magnitude, and it gradually diminishes till it reaches that of 
the 6th. Its changes are far from beihg regular, and, froui present observations, 
they do hot seem to recur till alter a period often years or more. 

A third variable star was discovered in the head on ilie 20th of June, 1670. by 
Anthelme. It appeared then to be of the 3d magnitude, but was so far diminished 
io the following October, as to be scarcely visible. In the beginning of April 
1671, it was again seen, and was rather brighter than at first. After several 
changes, it disappeared in March, 1672, and has not been observed since. 

These remarkable facts seem to indicate, that there is a brilliant planetary 
system iu this constellation, which, in some of its revolutions, becomes visible 
to us. 

History.— Mythologists give various accounts of the origin of this constella- 
tion. Some suppose it is Orpheus, the celebrated musician, who, on being mur- 
dered by the cruel priestess of Bacchus, was changed into a Swan, and placed 
near his Harp in the heavens. Others suppose it is the swan into which Ju))itcr 
transformed himself when he deceived Leda, wife of Tynrlarus, king of Sparia. 
Some affirm that it was Cicnus, a son of Neptune, who was so completely invul- 
nei-able that neither the javelins nor arrows, nor even the blows of Af^hilles, io 
furious combat, could make any impressioza. 

"Headlong he leaps from off his lofty car, 

And in close fight on foot renews the war; — 

But on his llesh nor wound nor blood is seen. 

The sword itself is blunted on the skin." 
But when Achilles saw that his darts and blows had no effect on him, he im- 
mediately threw aim on the ground and smothered him. While he was attemp^ 
ing to despoil him of his armour, he was suddenly changed into a swan. 
" Witji eager haste he went to strip the dead ; 

The vanish'd boiiy from his arms was fled. 

His seagod sire, t' immortalize his fame. 

Bad turn'd it to a bird that bears his name." 
According to Ovid this constellation took its name from Cygnus, a relative of 
Phaeton, who deeply lamented the untimely fate of that youth, and the melan- 
choly end of his sistei's, who, standing around his tomb, wept themselves into 
lo^lars. 

"Cicnus beheld the nymphs transform'd, aUied 

To their dead brother on the mortal side, 

In friendship and affection nearer bound ; 

He left the cities, and the realms he own'd, 

Through pathless fields, and lonely shores to range ; 

Ajid woods made thicker by the sisters' change. 

Whilst here, within the dismal gloom alone, 

The melancholy monarch made his moan ; 

His voice was lessen'd as he tried to speak. 

And issued through a long-extended neck : 

His hair transforms to down, his fingers meet 

In skinny films, and shape his oary feet ; 

From both his sides the wings and feathers break : 

And from his mouth proceeds a blunted beak : 

All Cicnus now into a swan was turn'd." — Ovid's Met. b. iL 

Wha* "variable stars hav- astronomers discovered in this constellation! Which qJ 
theae was first discovered to be variable in 16>!6 » In n-hat period are its periodical 
changes of light completed ? Describe the appearance qf Sud'f. Describe tns ont dis- 
covered in 1670. What do these retnarkable facts indicate? 



MAP v.] CAPRICORNUS. 13J 

Virgil, also, in the 10th book of his ^neid, alludes to the same fable :— 
" For Cicnus loved unhappy Phaeton, 
And sung his loss in poplar groves alone_ 
Beneath the sister shades to sooth his grief; 
Heaven heard his song, and hastened his relief; 
And changed to snowy plumes his hoarj' hair, 
And wing"d his tlight to sing aloft in air." 
Of all ihe feathered race, there is no bird, perhaps, which makes so beautifal 
and majestic an appearance as the swan. Ahaost every poet of eminence has 
taken notice of it. The swan has, probably, in all ages, and in every country 
where taste and elegance have been cultivated, been considered as the emblem 
of poetical dignity, purity, and ease. By the ancients it was consecrated to Apollo 
and the Muse's ; "they also entertained'a notion that this bird foretold its ovro end, 
and sang more sweetly at the approach of death. 

'• She. like the swan 

Expiring, dies in melody." — jEschylus. 
"So on the silver stream, when death is nigh, 
The mournful swan sings its own elegy." — Qvidy Tristia. 



CAPRICORNUS. 

The Goat. — This is the tenth sign, and eleventh constel- 
lation, in the order of the Zodiac, and is situated south of the 
Dolphin, and next east of Sagittarius. Its mean declination 
is 20^= south, and its mean right ascension, 310^. It is there- 
fore on the meridian about the ISth of September. It is to 
be observed that the first point of the sign Capricorn, not the 
constellation, marks the southern tropic, or "winter solstice. 
The sun, therefore, arrives at this point of its orbit the 21st 
of December, but does not reach the constellation Capricorn 
until the 16th of January. 

The sun, having now attained its utmost declination south, 
after remaining a few days apparently stationary, begins once 
more to retrace its progress northwardly, affording to the 
wintry latitudes of the north, a grateful presage of returning 
spring. 

At the period of the winter solstice, the sun is vertical to 
the tropic of Capricorn, and the southern hemisphere enjoys 
the same light and heat which the northern hemisphere en- 
joys on the 21st of June, when the sun is vertical to the tropic 
of Cancer. It is, at this period, mid-day at the south pole, 
and midnight at the north pole. 

The whole number of stars in this constellation is fifty 
one ; none of which are very conspicuous. The three largest 
are only of the 3d magnitude. There is an equal number 
of the 4th. 

Where is Capricomus situated ? What are its mean risht ascension and declination? 
When is the main body of the constellation on the meridian ? When does the sun enter 
\hQ sign, and when the constellation Cdipxicoxii'i Does the sim ever extend beyond 
this point into the southern hemisphere ? Wliat is the position of the sun with re- 
spect to the tropic of Capricorn, at the winter solstice, and what are the seasons in 
the two hemispheres? What are the nxunber and magnitude of the stars in this con- 
stellation ": 



132 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENS. [SEPT. 

The head of Capricorn may be recognised by means of 
iwo stars of the 3d magnitude, situated a little more than 2° 
apart, called Gitdi and Dabih. They are 28° from the Dol- 
phm, in a southerly direction. 

Giedi is the most northern star of the two, and is double. 
If a line be drawn from Lyra through Altair, and produced 
about 23^ farther, it will point out the head of Capricorn. 
These two stars come to the meridian the 9th of September, 
a few minutes after Sad'r, in Cygni. 

A few other stars, of inferior note may be traced out by 
reference to the maps. 

The sign of the Goat was called by the ancient oriental 
ists the " Southern gate of the Sun," as Cancer was denom 
inated the " Northern gate." The ten stars in the sign Ca 
pricorn, known to the ancients by the name of the " Towei 
of Gad," are probably now in the constellation Aquarius. 

History.— Capricornus is said to be Pan, or Bacchus, w)io, with some other 
deities were feasting near the banks of the Nile, when suddenly the dreadful 
giant Typhon came upon them, and compelled them all to assume a different 
shape, in order to escape his fury. Ovid relates, 

" How Typhon, from the conquer'd skies, pursued 

Their routed godheads to the seven-mouth'd Hood: 

Forced every god, (his fury to escape,) 

Some beastly form to take, or earthly shape. 

.Jove (sings the bard) was chang'd into a ram, 

From whence the horns of Lybian Ammon came. 

Bacchus a goat, Apollo was a crow ; 

Phcpbe a cat; the wife of Jove a cow, 

Whose hue was whiter than the falling snow 

Mercury to a nasty Ibis turned — 

While Venus fiom a fish protection craves. 

And once more phmges in her native waves." 
Or this occasion it is further related that Bacchus, or Pan, led the way and 
plunged into the Nile, and that the part of his body which was under the water, 
assumed the form of a fish, and the other part that of a goat ; and that to pre 
serve the memory of this frolic, Jupiter made him into a constellation, in hit 
metamorphosed shape. 

Some say that this constellation was the goal Amalthea, who supported the in 
fant Jupiter with her milk. To reward her kindness, the father of the gods 
placed her among the constellations, and gave one of her horns to the nymph* 
who had taken care of him in his infantile years. This gift was ever after called 
the horn of plenty ; as it possessed the virtue of imparting to the holder what- 
ever she desired.' 

The re;il sense of this fable, divested of poetical embellishment, appears to be 
this; that in Crete, some say in Lybia, there was a small territory shaped very 
much like a bullock's horn, and exceedingly fertile, wliich the king presented 
to his daughter Amaltliea, whom the poets feigned to have been Jupiter's nurse. 
"The bounteous Pan," as he is styled by Milton, was the god of rural scenery 
shepherds, and huntsmen. Virgil thus addresses him : — 

* On this account the Latin term Cornucopia, denotes plenty, or abundance of good 
things. The word Amalthea, when used figurdtively, has also the same rneanir»g. 

How may it be recognised? How are Gieili and Dahih situated with respect to the 
Dolphin? How are these two stars distinguished fmni each other, and what is their 
position in respect to the Eagle? When are they on our meridian? What were the 
sisns Capricorn and Cancer originally called ? Where are the ten stars, known to the 
aircients by the name of the " 1 ower of Gid," now to be found ' 



133 



'And thou, the shepherd's tultclary godj 
' •' ' -' ' d afaoc 



Leave, for a while, O Pan ! thy loved abode."" 
The name of Pan is derived from a Greek word siCTiifyini; i*u things • and he 
tras often considered as the great principle of vegetable and iinuial life. He re- 
aided cliiefly in Arcadia, in woods and the most rugged Ui> antains. As Pan 
usually terrified the inhabitants of the adjacent country, eveu when he was no- 
where to be seen, that kind of fear which often seizes men and which is only 
ideal or imaginary, has received from him the name of PaTua. 



CHAPTER XII. 

DIRECTIONS FOR TRACING THE CONSTELLATIONS WHICH ARE OM 
THE MERIDIAN IN OCTOBER. / 

PEGASUS. 

The Flying Horse. — This constellation is represented in 
an inverted posture, with wings. It occu])ies a large space 
in the heavens, between the Swan, the Dolphin and the 
Eagle, on the west, and the Northern Fish and Andromedaj 
on the east. Its mean right ascension is 340°, or it is situa- 
ted 20° W. of the prime meridian. It extends from the 
equinoctial N. 35°. Its mean length E. and VV. is about 40°, 
and it is six weeks in passing our meridian, viz. from the 1st 
of October to the 10th of November. 

We see but a part of Pegasus, the rest of the animal, 
being, as the poets imagined, hid m the clouds. 

It is readily distinguished from all other constellations by 
means of four remarkable stars, about 15° apart, forming the 
figure of a square, called the square of Pegasus. The two 
western stars in this square come to the meridian about the 
23d of October, and are 13° ayiart. The northern one, which 
is the brightest of three triangular stars in the martingale, is 
of the 2d magnitude, and is called Scheat. Its declination is 
26|:° N. 3Iarkab, also of the 2d magnitude, situated in the 
bead of the wing, is 13° S. of Scheat, and passes the meri- 
dian 11 minutes after it. 

* Pales, the female deity corresr)ondlne to Pan, was the goddess of sheepfolds and 
of pastures among the Romans. Thus Virgil ■■ — 

" Now, sacred Pales, in a lofty strain, 
I sing the rural honours of thy reign." 
The shepherds offered to this goddess milk and honey, to gain her protection ovet 
their flocks. She is represented as an old woman, and was worship" ed with great 
solemnity at Rome. Her festivals which were called Paiilia, were celebrated on the 
Mth of April, the day on which Romulus laid the founi^ations of the city. 

How is Pegasus represented? What space and position does it occupy in the hea- 
ens.! What are the di.stance and direction of it= jentre from the prime meridian! 
What are its mean length and breadth' How Ir^ag is it in passing our meridiani 
When does it pass the meridian? How is this on^tellation distinguished from afc 
athets! Describe the two stars which form the we^l side of the square? 

12 



134 PICTURE OF THE HEAVENa. | OCT 

The two stais which form the eastern side of the squarej 
come to the meridian about an hour after those in the western. 
The northern one has already been described as Alji/ipvatz 
in the head of Andromeda, but it also belongs to this c nstel- 
lation, and is 14° E. of Scheat. 14° S. of Alpheratz. 's Al- 
genib, the last star in the wing, situated 16^" E. of Mti kab. 

Algenih, in Pegasus, Alpheratz. in Andromeda, and Caj)h m Cassinpeii are 
situated on the prime meridian, and point out its direction through the pole. For 
tlus rea-son, they are sometimes called the three guides. They form au arc of 
that great circle in the heavens from which the distances of all the heavenly bo- 
dies are mea.sured. It is an arc (jf the equinoctial colure whicli passes through 
the vernal equinox, and which the sun crosse.s about tne 21st of March. It is, in 
astronomy, what the meridian of Greenwich is in geography. If the sun, or a 
{)(anet, or a star, be said to have so many degrees of right ascepsion, it means 
that the sun or planet has ascended so many degrees from this prime meridian. 

Enif, someti'iies called Enir, is a star of the 3d magnitude in the nose of Pe- 
gasus, about 20° W. S. W. of Marlcab, and halfway between it and the Uolphm. 
About 5 of the distance from Markab towards Enif, but a little to the S., there is 
a star of the 3d magnitude situated in the neck, whose letter name is Zeta. The 
loose cluster directly S. of a line joining Enif and Zeta, forms the head of Pe- 
gasus. 

In this constellation, there are eighty-nme stars visible to 
the naked eye, of which three^are of the second magnitude 
and three of the third. 

History. — This, according to fable, is the celebrated horse which sprung from 
the blood of Medusa, after Perseus had cutoff her head. He received his name 
according to Ilesiod, from his being bom near the sources (^"^w, Pege) of the 
ocean. According to Ovid, he fixed his residence on Mount Helicon, where by 
striking the earth with his foot, he raised the fabled fountain called Hippocrene. 
He became the favourite of the Muses; and being tamed by Neptune or Mi- 
nerva, he was given to Bellerophon, son of Glaucus, king of Ephyre, to aid liim 
in conquering the ChimaerEi, a hideous monster that continually vomited flames. 
This monster had three heads, that of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. The fore 
parts of its body were those of a lion, the middle those of a goat, and the hinder 
those of the dragon. It lived in Lycia, of which the top, on account of its deso- 
late wilderness, was the resort of lions, the middle, which was fruitful, was cov- 
ered with goats, and at the bottom, the marshy ground abounded with serpents 
Bellerophon was the first who made his habitation upon it. 

Plutarch thinks the Chimaera was the captain of some pirates who adorned 
their ship with the images of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. 

After the destruction of this monster, Bellerophon attempted to fly up to hea- 
ven upon Pegasus; but Jupiter was so displeased at this presumption, that he 
sent an insect to sting the horse, which occasioned the melancholy fall of hia 
rider. Bellerophon fell to the earth, and Pegas;us continued his flight up to h«fa- 
ven, and was placed by Jupiter among the constellations. 

"Nowheav'n his further wand'ring flight confines, 
Where, splendid with his num'rous stars, he shines." 

Ovid's Fasti 



EaUULUS, VEL EaUI SECTIO. 
The Little Horse, or the Hor.se's Head. — This Asle- 
nsm, or small cluster of stars, is situated about 7° W. of 
Enif, in the head of Pegasus, and about halfway between it 

Describe the two on the east side. What is the name of the star in the N. E. correi 
of the square? In the S. E. corner? In the S. W. comer? In the N. W. corner ? Ue- 
scribe the position and viagnitiide of Enif. What is the whole numl.er of stars in 
Pegasus? What 's the magnitude of the principal ones? Descrilie the situat' n\ of uha 
the LhUd Horsr 



MAP II I AQUARIUS. 135 

and the Dolpnin. It is on the meridian at S o'clock, on the 
11th of October. It contains ten stars, o) which the tour 
principal are only of the 4th magnitude. These may be 
readily distinguished by means of the long irregular square 
which they form. The two in the nose, are much nearer to- 
gether than the two in the eyes ; the former being 1^ apart, 
and the latter 2^°. Those in the nose are uppermost, being 
4° N. of those in the eyes. This figure also is in an inverted 
position. These four 'stars are situated 10° or 12° S. E. of 
the diamond in the Dolphin's head. Both of these clusters, 
are noticeable on account of their figure rather than their 
brilliancy. 

History.— This constellation is supposed tn be the brother of Peg-asus, named 
Celeris, given by Mei-cury to Castor, who was so celebrated for his skill in the 
manageuient of horses ; others take him to be the celebrated horse which Nep- 
tune struck out of the earth with his trident, when he disputed with Minena tor 
superiority. The head only of Celeris is visible, and this, also, is represented 
in an inverted position. 



AaUARIUS. 

The Water-Bearer. — This constellation is represented 
by the figure of a man, pouring out water from an urn. It is 
situated in the Zodiac, immediately S. of the equinoctial, 
and bounded by the Little Horse, Pegasus, and the Western 
Fish on the N.', the Vv'hale on the E.^ the Southern Fish on 
the S. and the Goat on the W. It is now the 12th in order, 
or last of the Zodiacal constellations; and is the name of the 
11th sign in the ecliptic. Its mean declination is 14° S. and 
its mean right ascension 335°, or 22 hours, 20 min. ; it being 
1 hour and 40 min. W. of the equinoctial colure ; its centre 
is, therefore, on the meridian the loth of October. 

It contains one hundred and eight stars ; of which the four 
largest are all of the 3d magnitude. 

"His head, his shoulders, and his lucid breast, 
Ghsten with stars ; and where his urn inchnes 
"Rivers of hght brighten the wat'ry track." 

The northeastern limit of Aquarius may be readily distin- 
guished by means of four stars of the 4th magnitude, in the 
hand and handle of the urn, so placed as to form the letter 
Y, very plainly to be seen, 15° S. E. of Enif, or 18° S. S. 
W, of Markab, in Pegasus ; making with the tAvo latter nearly 
a right angle. 

When is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars? What is the 
magnitude of the principal ones? How may the principal stars be distinsriished) 
How are the two in the nose distinguished from the two in the eyes? What are their 
distance and direction from the Uolphin? On what account are these clusters noticea- 
ble? How is Aquarius represented? Where is it situated? What is its present order 
among the constellations of the Zodiac? What are its right ascension and declination? 
Vhat is the whole number of its stars? What is the magnitude of the principal ones? 
How may the N. E. limit of Aquarius be readilv di.=tin£nilshed? What are thu distance 
and dire Uion of this letter Y, from Markab and Enif, in Pegasus ? 



136 KOTURE OF THE HEAVENS. | OCT. 

About 4J° W . of £ri R figure is El Melik, a star of the 3d magnitude, in the R 
shoulder, and the .j; n\ ipal one in this constellation. 10° S. VV. of El Melik. ii 
anothe,r star ol the »ianie magnitude, situated in the W. shoulder, called Saat» 
Sand. 

Ancha of the 4tr. .finjjnitude, is in the right side, S° S. of El Melik. 9° E. of 
Anchii, IS another s iv/ of thr 4th masnitude, whose letter name is Lambda. 

Scheal, of the 3d ti.ngnitude, lying below the knee, is situated 6^° S. of Laralv- 
ria, and 14° S. of Scnnat. ttie brilliant star Fomalhaui,* of between the 1st and 
2(1 magnitudes, terminates the cascade in the mouth of the Southern Fish. Thia 
star IS couunon Vo both these constellations, and is one of tnose from which the 
lunar distance is computed for ascertaining the longitude at sea. It culminatea 
at 9 o'clock on tlie 22d of October. 

FonialhaiiU' Deneb Kaitos, and Alpha in the head of the Phognix, make a large 
trianjile, whose vertex is in Deneb Kaitos. Those two stars of the 4th magnitude, 
situated 4° S. of Sad es Saud, and nearly the same distance from Ancha, are in 
the tail of Cipricorn. They are about 2° apart. The western one is called 
Drmeb Algedi. 

The rest of the stars in the cascade are quite small ; they may be tracei* fronv 
the letter Y, in the urn, in a southeasterly direction towards the tail of Cetus, 
from which the cascade suddenly bends otf near Scheat, in an opposite course, 
and finally disappears in the mouth of the Southern Fish, 30° S. of Y. 

History.— This constellation is the famous Ganymede, a beautiful youth of 
Phrygia, son of Tros, king of Troy, or, according to Lucian, son of Dardanus. 
He was taken up to heaven by Jupiter as he was tending his father's Hocks on 
Mount Ida, and became the cupbearer of the gods in place of Hebe. There are 
various opinions, however, among the ancients respecting its origin. Some sujv 
pose it represents Deucalion, who was placed among the stars after the celebra- 
ted deluge ofThessaly, 1500 years before the birth of our Saviour; while otherg 
think it designed to commemorate Cecrops, who came from Egypt to Greece, 
founded Athens, established science, and introduced the arts of polished life. 

The ancient Egyptians supposed the setting or disappearance of Aquariua 
caused the Nile to rise, by the sinking of his urn in the water. — In the Zodiac oi 
the Hebrews, Aquarius represents the tribe of Reuben. 



PISCIS AUSTRALIS, VEL NOTIUS. 

The Southern Fish. — Thi.s constellation is directly S. ot 
Aquarius, and is represented as a fish drinking the water 
which Aquarius pours from his urn. Its mean declination is 
31° S. and its mean right ascension and time of passing the 
meridian are the same as those of Aquarius, and it is seen on 
the meridian at the same time ; viz., on the 15th of October. 
It contains 24 visible stars, of which one is of the 1st magni- 
tude or between the 1st and 2d, two are of the 3d, and five of 
the 4th. The first and most beautiful of all is Fomalhavt, 
situated in the mouth. This is 14° directly S. of Scheat in 
Aquarius, and may be seen passing the meridian low down 
m the southern hemisphere, on the 22d and 23d of October. 

* Pronounced Fo-ma-lo. 

"What is the name of the principal star in this constellation? lV?iat in its positionf 
What star in the W. shoulder 1 Describe the situation of Ancha. What is the po-ti- 
tion of Scheat and Fomalhaut ? To what constellations is Fomalhaut common 7 (if 
\Dhat nautical importance is it? IVhen does it culminate? With ichar other star$ 
does it form a large triangle ? Hoto may you trace the stars in the cascade ? Describe 
the situation and appearance of the Southern Fish. What are its mean ripht ascensioi. 
ts\d declination? When is it on the meridian? What is the whole number of its stars? 
What is the magnitude of its principal ones? What are the name and position of the 
woBt brilliant star in the constellation 3 When and where does it pass the meridian i 



VARIABLE AND DOUBLE STARS, &C. 137 

lis position in the heavens has been determined with the 
greatest possible accuracy, to enable navigators to find their 
longitude at sea. 

The mode of doing this cannot be explained here. The problem is one of some 
difficulty. It consists in finding the angular distance bet^veen some star whose 
position' is well known, and the moon when she is passing near it ; also, the 
altitude of each, at the same instant, with good sextants. These data furnish the 
elements of a spherical triangle, the solution of which, after various intricate 
corrections, is made to result in the longitude of the given place. — See note to 
Aritties. In 1714, the British Parliament olfered a reward of 10,000 pomids ster- 
ling, to any man who should discover a method of detei'mining the longitude 
wifhin 1°, or 60 geographic miles of the truth ; 15,000 pounds to the man who 
should find it within 40 miles, and 20.000 pounds, if found within 30 miles. Thess 
rewards in part have been since distributed among eminent mathematicians, ia 
Europe, agreeably to the respective merits of their discoveries. 

History.— This constellation is supposed to have taken its name from the 
transformation of Venus into the shape of a fish when she fled, terrified at the 
horrible advances of the monster Tvphon, as we have related in the mythology 
of the Fishes. — {See Pisces.) 



CHAPTER XIII, 

VARIABLE AND DOUBLE STARS — CLUSTERS — NEBULA. 

1. Variable Stars. — The periodical variations of brilliancy 
to which some of the fixed s*ars are subject, may be reckoned 
among the most remarkable of their phenomena. Several 
stars, formerly distinguished by their splendour, have entirely 
disappeared ; others are now conspicuous which do not seem 
to have been visible to the ancient obsen^ers ; and there are 
some which alternately appear and disappear, or, at least, of 
which the light undergoes great periodic changes. Some 
seem to become gradually more obscure, as Delta in the Great 
Bear; others, like Beta in the Whale, to be increasing" in 
brilliancy. Some stars have all at once blazed forth with 
great splendour, and, after a gradual diminution of their light, 
again become extinct. The most remarkable instance of this 
kind is that of the star which appeared in 1-572, in the time 
of Tycho Brahe. It suddenly shone forth, in the constella- 
tion Cassiopeia, with a splendour exceeding that of stars of 
the first magnitude, even of Jupiter and of Venus, at their 
least distances from the earth ; and could be seen, with the 
naked eye, on the meridian, in full day ! Its brilliancy gradu- 
ally diminished from the time of its first appearance, and at 
the end of sixteen months, it entirely disappeared, and has 

For what purpose has Its position been v'ery accurately determined? Describe the pe- 
riodical A-ariations of brilliancy to which some of the fixed stars are subject? Mention 
some of the most remarkable instances of such variations, and des'-.ribe '.hem particu- 
larly. 

12* 



138 DOUBLE STARS. 

never been seen since. {See a more particular account of 
this phenomenon^ page 40.) 

Another instance of the same kind was observed in 1604, 
when a star of the first magnitude suddenly appeared in the 
nght foot of Ophiuchus. It presented, like the former, all the 
phenomena of a prodigious flame, being, at first, of a dazzling 
white, then of a reddish yellow, and, lastly, of a leaden paJe- 
ness ; in which its light expired. These instances prove that 
the stars are subject to great physical revolutions. — Page 41. 

A great number of stars have been observed whose light 
seems to undergo a regular periodic increase and diminution. 
They are properly called Variable Stars. One in the Whale 
has a period of 334 days, and is remarkable for the magni- 
tude of its variations. From being a star of the second mag- 
nitude, it becomes so dim as to be seen with difficulty through 
powerful telescopes. Some are remarkable for the shortness 
of the period of their variation, Algol has a period of between 
two and three days ; Delta Cephei, of 5^ days ; Beta LyrcBj 
of 6 2-5 days ; and Mu Antinoi^ of 7 days. 

The regular succession of these variations precludes the 
supposition of an actual destruction of the stars ; neither can 
the variations be supposed to arise from a change of distance; 
for as the stars invariably retain their apparent places, it would 
be necessary to suppose that they approach to, and recede 
from the earth in straight lines, which is very improbable. 
The most probable supposition is, that the stars revolve, like 
the sun and planets, about an axis. " Such a motion." says 
the elder Herschel, "may be as evidently proved, as the diur- 
nal motion of the earth. Dark spots, or large portions of the 
surface, less luminous than the rest, turned alternately in 
certain directions, either towards or from us, will account for 
all the phenomena of periodical changes in the lustre of the 
stars, so satisfactorily, that we certainly need not look for any 
other cause." 

2. Double Stars. — On examining the stars with telescopes 
of considerable power, many of them are found to be com- 
posed of two or more stars, placed contiguous to each other, 
or of which the distance subtends a very minute angle. This 
appearance is, probably, in many cases, owing solely to the 
optical effect of their position relative to the spectator ; for it 
is evident that two stars will appear contiguous if they are 

"What are such stars denominated? Describe the variations of one in the Wliale. 
What stars are remarkable for the shortness of the period of their variations? Why 
«iay we not supijose that the sUirs which disappear are actually destroyed ? Why may 
(lot the v;iriations arise from a change of distance? What is the most probable suppo- 
sition in r-^trard to their cause? How does Dr. Herschel explain these phenomena* 
V'n ixi'niinini-' the stars with a telescope of considerable power, what other peculiarity 
do \^ - ;': 1? To what is this appearance, in many cases, owins' 



DOUBLE STARS. 139 

placed nearly in the sEime line of vision, althougA their real 
distance may be immeasurably great. 

There are. however, manv instances in which the angle of 
position of the two stars varies in such a manner as tc indi- 
cate a revolution about each other and about a common cen- 
tre. In this case they are said to form a Binary System^ 
performing to each otlier the office of sun and planet, and are 
connected together by laws of gravitation like those which 
prevail in the solar system. The recent observations of Sir 
John Herschel and ^ir James South, have established the 
truth of this singular fact, beyond a doubt. Motions have been 
detected, so rapid as to become measurable within very short 
periods of time ; and at certain epochs, the satellite or feebler 
star has been observed to disappear, either passing behind or 
before the primary, or approaching so near to it that its light 
has been abso-rbed by that of the other. 

The most remarkable instance of a regular revolution of 
this sort, is that of Mizar, in the tail of the Great Bear ; in 
which the angular motion is 6 degrees and 24 minutes of a 
great circle, annually ; so that the two stars complete a revo- 
lution about one another in the space of 58^ years. About 
eleven twelfths of a complete circuit have been already de- 
scribed since its discover)^ in 1781, the same year in which 
the planet Herschel was discovered. 

A double star in Ophiuchus presents a similar phenomenon, 
and the satellite has a motion in its orbit still more rapid. 
Castor, in the Twins,* Gamma Virginis, Zeta in the Crab, 
Zi Bootis, Delta Serpentis, and that remarkable double star 
61 Cygni, together with several others, amounting to 40 in 
number,! exhibit the same evidence of a revolution about each 
other and about a common centre. But it is to be remem- 
bered that these are not the revolutions of bodies of a planet- 
ary^ nature around a solar centre, but of sun around sun — 
each, perhaps, accompanied by its train of planets, and their 
satellites, closely shrouded from our view by the splendour 
of their respective suns, and- crowded into a space bearing 
hardly a greater proportion to the enormous mterval which 
separates them, than the distances of the satellites of our plan- 

* ?age 67. t Herschel's Astronomy, page 391. 

Are there, however, any instances where one star revolves with another around a 
common centre? ^V^len two stars are thus situated, what system are thev said to 
form? Why is it thus denominated? What modem astronomers of srreat celebri^- 
have established the truth of this theory? What rates of motion did "they detect in 
these binary systems ? ^VTiat other interesting phenomena, indicating a mutual revo- 
ution, did they discover? What is the most remarkable instance of this fact? Men- 
tion some other instances. Are these revolving stars of a planetarv nature ; Of wbsu 
nature are they? 



140 DOUBLE STARS. 

ets from their primaries, bear to their distances from the »«!• 
Itself. 

The examination of double stars was first undertaken by the late Sir WiHi.in 
Herschel, with a view to the question of parallax, ilis att'eniion was, howeve*/ 
soon arrested by the new and unexpected pJienornena which these bodies pre 
sented. Sir William observed of them, in all, 2400. Sir .lames South and Her 
schel have given a catalogue of 380 in the Transactions of the Royal Society, fo, 
1824, and South added 458, in 1826. Sir John Herschel, in addition to the above 
published an account of 1000, before he left England for the Cape of Good Hope, 
where he is, at the time we write, pushin;,' liis discoveries in the southern hem- 
isphere wit? great perseverance and success. Professor Struve, with the frreat 
Dorpat telescope, has given a catalogue of 3,063 of the most remarkable of ihes? 
stars. 

The object of these catalogues is not merely to fix the place of the star within 
such limits as will enable us easily to discover it at any future time, but also to 
I ecord a description of the appearance, position, and mutual distances, of the 
individual stars'composing tlie system, in order that subsecjuent observers may 
have the means of detecting their connected motions, or any changes which they 
may exhibit. Professor Struve has also taken notice of 52 triple star's, among 
which No. 11 of the Unicorn, Zeta of Cancer, and Zi of the Balance, appear to 
be ternary systems in motion. Quadruple and quintuple stars have likewise 
been observed, which also appear to revolve about a common centre of gravity ; 
in short, every region of the heavens furnishes examples of these curious phe- 
nomena. 

Colour of the Stars. — Many of the double stars exhibit the 
curious and beautiful phenomenon of contrasted colours., or 
complimentary tints. In such instances, the larger star is 
usually of a ruddy or orange hue, while the smaller one ap- 
pears blue or green, probably in virtue of that general law of 
optics, which provides, that when the retina is under the in- 
fluence of excitement by any bright, coloured light, feebler 
lights, which seen alone would produce no sensation but that 
of whiteness, shall for the time appear coloured with the tint 
complimentary to that of the brighter. Thus, a yellow colour 
predominating in the light of the brighter star, that of the less 
bright one, in the same field of view., Avill appear blue ; while, 
if the tint of the brighter star verge to crimson, that of the 
other will exhibit a tendency to green — or even appear a vivid 
green. The former contrast is beautifully exhibited by lota^ 
"n Cancer; the latter by Almaach^ in Andromeda — both fine 
double stars. If, however, the coloured star be much the less 
bright of the two, it will not materially affect the other. Thus, 
for instance. Eta Cassiopeise exhibits the beautiful combina 
tion of a large white star, and a small one of a rich ruddy 
purple. 

It is not easy to conceive what variety of illumination tiLn 
suns — a red and a green, or a yellow and a blue one — must 
afford to a planet revolving about either; and what charming 

What beautiful and curious phenomenon has been observed, as it regards the coloui 
of double st3rs .» Explain how these colours are usuallv contrasteil. Mention an ex- 
ample of this phenomenon. How, If the coloured star \x much the less briehf of the 
Iwo, will the other be affected? Give an instance. What may be the effect of such a 
""rie'vy of color' « solar light? 



CLUSTERS. 



141 



contrasts and grateful vicissitudes — a red and a gr een day, 
for instance, alternating with a white one and with. da7kness 
— might arise from the presence or absence of one or the other, 
or both, above the horizon. Insulated stars of a red colour, 
almost as deep as that of blood, occur in many parts of the 
heavens, but no green or blue star (of any decided hue) has, 
we believe, ever been noticed, unassociated with a companion 
brighter than itself. 

Clusters. — When we cast our eyes over the concave sur- 
face of the heavens in a clear night, we do not fail to observe 
that there are, here and there, groups of stars which seem to 
be compressed together more densely than those in the neigh- 
bouring parts ; forming bright patches and clusters. 

There is a group called the Pleiades, in which six or seven 
stars may be noticed, if the eye be directed full upon it ; and 
many more if the eye be turned carelessly aside, while the at- 
tention is kept directed* upon the group. Telescopes show 
fifty or sixty large stars thus crowded together in a very mod- 
erate space, and comparatively insulated from the rest of the 
heavens. Rheita affirms that he counted 200 stars in this 
small cluster. The constellation, called Coma Berenices, is 
another group, more diffused, and consisting of much larger 
stars. 

In the constellation Cancer, there is a nebulous cluster of 
very minute stars, called Prcesepe, or the Beehive, which is 
sufficiently luminous to be seen by the naked eye, in the ab- 
sence of the moon, and which any ordinary spyglass will re- 
solve into separate stars. In the sword-handle of Perseus, also, 
is another such spot, crowded with stars. It requires, however, 
rather a better telescope to resolve it into individual stars. 

These are called Clusters of Stars. Whatever be their 
nature, it is certain that other laws of aggregation subsist in 
these spots, than those which have determined the scattering 
of stars over the general surface of the sky. Many of them, 
mdeed, are of an exactly round figure, and convey the idea 
of a globular space filled full of stars, and constituting, in it- 
self, a family or society apart, and subject only to its own 
mternal laws. 

" It would be a vain task," says the younger Herschel, " to 

* " It is a very remarkable fact," says Sir John Herschel, "that the centre of the 
visual organ is by far less sensible to feeble impressions of light, than the exterior 
portions of the retina."— ^sf. p. 398. 

Are individual stars of a deep colour ever found separate from others 7 \VTiat are 
clusters of stars'! Mention some instance. Describe it Mention some other instance. 
Describe the position and appearance of PrcEsepe. Describe any other cluster which 
you may recollect. What are the constitution and figure of such groups? What did. 
the younger Herschel say of the number of stars which compose these clustnsJ 



142 NtBUL^E- 

Rttempt to count the stars in one of these glolmlar clusters. 
They are not to be reckoned by hundreds ; ibr it would an- 

f»ear that many clusters of this description must contam, at 
east, ten or twenty thousand stars, compacted and wedi^ed 
together in a round space, not more than a tenth part as larj^e 
as that which is covered by the moon. 

4. Nebulje. — The Nebulae, so called from their dim, cloudy 
appearance, form another class of objects which furni'ih mat- 
ter for curious speculation, and conjecture respecting the for- 
mation and structure of the sidereal heavens. When exam- 
ined with a telescope of moderate powers, the greater part of 
the nebulae are distinctly perceived to be composed of little 
stars, imperceptible to the naked eye, because, on account of 
their apparent proximity, the rays of light proceeding from 
each are blended together, in such a manner as to produce 
only a confused luminous appearance. 

In other nebula, however, no individual stars can be per- 
ceived, even through the best telescopes ; and the nebulae 
exhibit only the appearance of a self-luminous or phosphores- 
cent patch of gaseous vapour, though it is possible that even 
in this case, the appearance may be owing to a congeries of 
stars so minute, or so distant, as not to afford, singly, sufficient 
light to make an impression on the eye. 

In some instances a nebula presents the appearance of a 
faint luminous atmosphere, of a circular form, and of large 
extent, surrounding a central star of considerable brilliancy. 

One of the most remarkable nebulae is in the sword-handle 
of Orion. It is formed of little flocky masses, like wisps of 
cloud, which seem to adhere to many small stars at its out- 
skirts. It is not very unlike the mottling of the sun's disk, 
but of a coarser grain, and with darker intervals. These wisps 
of light, however, present no appearance of being composed 
of small stars ; but in the intervals between them, we fancy 
that we see stars, or that, could we strain our sight a little 
more, we should see them. These intervals may be compa- 
red to openings in the firmament, through which, as through 
a window, we seem to get a glimpse of other heavens, and 
brighter regions beyond. — Page 58. 

Another very remarkable nebula is that in the girdle of An- 
d'omeda, which, on account of its being visible to *he naked 
ey °, has been known since the earliest ages of astronomy. It 
is tften mistaken for a comet, by those unacquainted with the 

■Wh> are the nebuls so called? Describe the usual appearances of nenulae, as seen 
througl a telescope. What other appearance do nebiilse sometimes exhibit? Mention 
some ir. Mances of the n-^st remark;il)le nebulae. Describe the one in the swoid 
handle * Orion. Describe the one which is in the girdle of Andromeda. 



NEBULA, 143 

Heavens. Marius, who noticed it in 1612, describes its ap- 
pearance as that of a candle shining through horn; and the 
resemblance is certainly very striking. Its form is a long 
oval, increasing, by insensible gradations of brightness, from 
the circumference to a central point, which, though very much 
brighter than the rest, is not a star, but only a nebula in a 
high state of condensation. No power of vision hitherto di- 
rected to this nebula has been able to resolv*^ it into the least 
appearance of stavs. It occupies an area comparatively large 
— equal to that of the moon in quadrature. — This nebula may 
be considered as a type, on a large scale, of a very numerous 
class of nebulas, of a round or oval figure, increasing more o 
less in density towards the centre. 

Annular nebuIcB also exist, but are among the rarest ob- 
jects in the heavens. The most conspicuous of this class, is 
to be found exactly halfway between the stars Beta and 
Gamma Lyra, and may be seen with a telescope of moderate 
power. It is small, and particularly well defined: appearing 
like a flat oval ring. The central opening is not entirely 
dark, but is filled with a faint, hazy light, uniformly spread 
over it, like a fine gauze stretched over a hoop. 

Planetary nebulcE are very extraordinary objects. They 
have, as their name imports, the appearance of planets, with 
round or slightly oval disks, somev/hat mottled, but approach- 
ing, in some instances, to the vividness of actual planets. 
Some of them, upon the supposition that they are equally dis- 
tant from us with the stars, must be of enormous magnitude. 
That one, for instance, which is situated in the left hand of 
Aquarius, must have a volume vast enough, upon the ioAvest 
computation, to fill the whole orbit of Herschel ! 

The nebulae furnish an inexhaustible field of speculation 
and conjecture. That by far the larger number of them con- 
sists of stars, there can be little doubt ; and in the intermina- 
ble range of system upon system, and firmament upon firma- 
ment, which we thus catch a glimpse of, the imagination ;s 
bewildered and lost. Sir William Herschel conjectured that 
the nebulae might form the materials out of which nature 
elaborated new suns and systems, or replenished the wasted 
light of older ones. But the little we know of the physical 
constitution of these sidereal masses, is altogether insufficient 
to warrant such a conclusion. 

Of what class of nebulse may this be considered as a type? What other species of 
nehulre exist in the heavens? Describe the moft conspicuous of this claus. Wha; 
other species of neb alas are more rarely found ? Describe the appearance of planetary 
nebulae. AVhat do wn know in regard to their magnitude? How iart'e must Uie one bti 
which is situated in the left hand of Aquarius? What did Sir Wiiiia'u Hei chel ccv 
jtcture as to the use of the nebulas? Have we facts sufficient tc -s'a.rHn s ch a co» 
■f cture ? 



144 VIA LACTEAj OR | M \P V17 

CHAPTER XIV. 
VIA LACTEA. 

" Throughout the Galaxy's extended line, 
Unnumber'd orbs in gay confusion shine : 
Where every star that gilds the gloom of night 
With the faint tremblings of a distant light, 
Perhaps illumes some system of its own, 
With the strong inlluence of a radiant sun." — Mrs. Carter 

There is a luminous zone or pathway of singular white- 
ness, varying from 4° to 20° in width, which passes quite 
round the heavens. The Greeks called it Galaxy, on ac- 
count of its colour and appearance : the Latins, for the same 
reason, called it Via Lactea, which, in our tongue, is Milky 
Way. 

Of all the constellations which the heavens exhibit to our 
view, this fills the mind with the most indescribable gran- 
deur and amazement. When we consider what unnumbered 
millions of mighty suns compose this cluster, whose distance 
is so vast that the strongest telescope can hardly separate 
their mingled twilight into distinct specks, and that the most 
contiguous of any two ol them may be as far asunder as our 
sun is from them, we fall as far short of adequate janguage 
to express our ideas of such immensity, as we do of instru- 
ments to measure its boundaries. 

It is one of the recent jichievements of astronomy that has 
resolved the Milky-Way into an infinite number of small 
stars, whose confused and feeble lustre occasions that pe- 
culiar whiteness Avhich we see in a clear evening, when the 
moon is absent. It is also a recent and well accredited doc- 
trine of astronomy, that all the stars in the univ^erse are ar- 
ranged into clusters, or groups, which are called Nebuljs or 
Starry Systems, each of which consists of many thousands 
of stars. 

The fixed star which we call our Sun, belongs, it is said, 
to that extensive nebula, the Milky- Way ; and although ap- 
parently at such an immeasurable distance from its fellows, 
is, doubtless, as near to any one of them, as they are to one 
another. 

Of the number and economy of the stars which compose 
ehis group, we have very little exact knowledge. Dr. Her- 
schel informs us that, with his best glasses, he saw and 



•nd amaze.'""n What causes the whiteness of the Milky Way? hito what are al 
the stars in tnc u*.iverse arranged? To what nebula does the sun belong, and whal 
to probalily its distance from Its fellows? What knowledge have we of the number ajo 
•eonomy of the stars in this group? 



MAP VIII. ) MILKY-WAY. 145 

counted 588 stars m a single spot, without moving his tele- 
scope ; and as the gradual motion of the earth carried thest 
out of view and introduced others successively in their places, 
while he kept his telescope steadily fixed to one point, "there 
passed over his field of vision, in the space of one quarter of 
an hour, no less than one hundred and sixteen thousana 
stars, and at another time in forty-one minutes, no less than 
two hundred and Jlfty-eight thousand.^^ 

In all par*s of the Milky- Way he found the stars unequally 
dispersed, and appearing to arrange themselves into separate 
clusters. In the small space, for example, between Beta and 
Sad'r, in Cygni, the stars seem to be clustering in two di- 
visions ; each division containing upwards of one hundred 
and sixty-five thousand stars. 

At other observations, when examining a section of the 
Milky- Way, not apparently more than a yard in breadth, ana 
six in length, he discovered ^7/^;?/ thousand stars, large enough 
to be distinctly counted ; and he suspected twice as many 
more, which, for want of sufficient light in his telescope, he 
saw only now and then. 

It appears from numerous observations, that various changes, 
are taking place among the nebulee — that several nebulas are 
formed by the dissolution of larger ones, and that many ne- 
bulas of this kind are at present detaching themselves from 
the Milky-Way. In that part of it which is in the body of 
Scorpio, there is a large opening, about 4° broad, almost 
destitute of stars. These changes seem to indicate that 
mighty movements and vast operations are continually going 
on in the distant regions of the universe, upon a scale of mag- 
nitude and grandeur which baffles the human understanding. 

More than two thousand five hundred nebulae have already 
been observed ; and, if each of them contains as many stars 
as the Milky- Way, several hundreds of millions of stars must 
exist, even within that portion of the heavens which lies open 
to our observation. 

" O \vhat a confluence of ethereal fires, 
From urns unnumber'd down the steep of heaven 
Streams to a point, and centres on my sight." 

Although the Milky- Way is more or less visible at all 
seasons of the year, yet it is seen to the best advantage du- 
ring the months of July, August, September, and October. 
When Lyra is on, or near the meridian, it may be seen 

Haw many did Dr. ^e^»chel count in a single spot during the space of 15 mmutesi 
How did he find the stars dispersed, throuehout the Milky- Way? Give an example. 
Give another instance. What changes are'taking place in the M'.'Vv "Way and other 
nebulas ? What di these clianges indicate? How many nebulae have been discovered ? 
If each of these r ebulae contains as many stars as the Milky-%Tay, how many stars 
must exist even in that portion of the heavens which lies open to our observatiunj 
where and at what period may the Milky- Way lie seen to the best advajitaee? 



146 ORIGIN OF THE 

Stretching obliquely over the heavens from northeast to souta- 
west, gradually moving over the firmament in common with 
other constellations. 

Its form, breadth and appearance are various, in diffeient 
parts of its course. In some places it is dense and luminous ; 
in others, it is scattered and faint. Its breadth is often not 
more than five degrees ; though sometimes it is ten or fifleea 
degrees, and even twenty. In some places it assumes a 
double path, but for the most part it is single. 

It may be traced in the heavens, beginning near the head of Cephems, about 
30° from the north pole, througli the constellations Cassiopeia, Perseuf, Auriga, 
and part of Orion and the feet of Gemini, where it crosses the Zodiac ; thence 
over the equinoctial into the southern hemisphere, through Monoceros, and the 
middle of the ship Argo, where it is most luminous, Charles's Oak. the Cross, the 
feet of the Centaur, and the Altar. Here it is divided into two branches, as it 
passes over the Zodiac Eigain into the northern hemisphere. One branch runs 
through the tail of Scorpio, the bow of Sagittarius, the shield of Sobieski, the feet 
of Antinous, Aquila, Delphinus, the Arrow, and the Swan. The other branch 
passes through the upper part of the tail of Scorpio, the side of Serpentarius, 
Taurus Poniatowski, the Goose and the neck of the Swan, where it again unites 
B-ith the other branch, and passes on to the headof Cepheus, the place of its be 
smiling. 

There are several other nebulae in the heavens as large as 
the Milky-Way, but not visible to the naked eye, which may 
exhibit the phenomenon of a lucid zone to the planetary 
worlds that may be placed within them. 

Some of the pagan philosophers maintained that the Milky- Way weis formerly 
tlie sun's path, and that its present luminous appearance is the track which its 
scattered beams left visible in t)ie heavens. 

The ancient poets and even philosophers, speak of the Galaxy, or Milkv Way, 
as the path which their deities used in the heavens, and which le-i olrer,tl» n the 
tlirone of Jupiter. Thus, Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, Book i. : — 
"A way there is in heaven's extended plain. 
Which when the skies are clear is seen below, 
And mortals, by the name of Milky, know ; 
The groundwork is of stars, through which tlie road 
Lies open to the Thunderer's abode." 
Milton ^<'des to tVJs, in the following lines : — 

" \ oroad and ample road, whose dust is gold, 
And pavement, stars, as stars to thee appear, 
Seen in the Galaxy, that Milky- Way, 
Which nightly, as a circling zone, thou seest 
Powdered with stars." 



CHAPTER XV. 

ORIGIN OF THE CONSTELLATIONS. 

The science of astronomy was cultivated by me irame 
diate descendants of Adam. Josephus informs us that the 

Describe the breadth and appearance of the Ml' cy-Way. Horo may it be traced in 
.he heavens 1 Are there othei nebulae in the heavi s as large as the Milky- Way ? How 
early wa.s the science of astronomy cultivated? ^hat authority have we for a~ ' 
■K --xxly a date to the science? 



CONSTELLATIONS. 14/ 

sons of Seth employed themselves in the study of astronomy , 
and that they wrote their observations upon two pillars, one 
of brick, and the other of stone,* in order to preserve them 
against the destruction which Adam had foretold should come 
upon the earth. He also relates, that Abraham argued the 
unity and power ot God, from the orderly course of things 
both at sea and land, in their times and seasons, and fiom his 
observations upon the morions and influences of the sun, 
moon, and stars ; and that he read lectures in astronomy and 
arithmetic to the Egyptians, of which they understood noth- 
ing till Abraham brought thes^ sciences from Chaldea to 
Egypt; from whence they pap.-ed to the Greeks. 

Berosus also observes that Abraham was a great and just 
man, and famous for his celestial obserA^ations ; the making 
of which was thought to be so necessan,' to the human wel- 
fare, that he assigns it as the principal reason of the Al- 
mighty's prolonging the life of man. This ancient historian 
tells us, in his account of the longevity of the antediluvians, 
that Providence found it necessary to prolong man's days, in 
order to promote the study and advancement of virtue, and 
the improvement of geometry and astronomy, which required, 
at least, six hundred years for making and perfecting obser- ', 
vations.f 

When Alexander took Babylon, Calisthenes found that the 
most ancient observations existing on record in that city, were 
made by the Chaldeans about 1903 years before that period, 
which carries us back to the time of the dispersion of mankind 
by the confusion of tongues. It w^as 1500 years after this 
that the Babylonians sent to Hezekiah, to inquire about the 
shadow's going back on the dial of Ahaz. 

It is therefore very probable that the Chaldeans and Egyp- 
tians were the original inventors of astronomy ; but at what 
period of the world they marked out the heavens into constel- 
lations, remains in uncertainty. La Place fixes the date 
thirteen or fourteen hundred years before the Christian era, 
since it was about this period, that Eudoxus constructed the 
first celestial sphere upon which the constellations were de- 

* Josephus affirms, that " he saw himself that of stone to remain in Syria in hla 
own time." 

♦ Vince's Complete System of Astronomy, Vol. ii. p. 244. 

^''hat does Josephus relate concerning Abraham's knowledge of astronomr? Who, 
does he say, first introduced this science hito Eg>-pt? What other historian of remote 
antiquitj' speaks of Abraham's attention \o this science? What reason does Berosus 
assign for the longevity of the antediluvians? When Alexander look Babylon, what 
ancient observations did he find in that city? To what period of the world do these 
obser^-ations carrj- us back? How long after this was it that the Babylonians sen* to 
Hezekiah, to inquire about the shadow's going back on the dial of Ahaz? Who, *,ien, 
may we conclude, were the original inventors of astronomy, and at what peiiod dia 
they arrange the fixed stars into constellations ^ W hen does La Place fix the date t 



148 ORIGIN OF THE 

lineated.* Sjr Isaac Newton was of opinion, that all the oM 
constellations related to the ArgonaiUic expedition, and that 
they were invented to commemorate the heroes and events of 
that memorable enterprise. It should be remarked, however, 
that while none of the ancient constellations refer to transac- 
tions of a later date, yet v/e have various accounts of them, 
of a much higher antiquity than that event. 

Some of the most learned antiquarians of Europe have 
searched every page of heathen mythology, and ransacked all 
the legends of poetry and fable for the purpose of rescuing 
this subject from that impermeable mist which rests upon it, 
and they have only been able to assure us, in general terms, 
that they are Chaldean or Egyptian hieroglyphics, intended 
to perpetuate by means of an imperishable record, the memory 
of the times in which their inventors lived, their religion and 
manners, their achievements in the arts, and whatever in their 
history, was most worthy of being commemorated. There 
was at least, a moral grandeur in this idea ; for an event thus 
registered, a custom thus canonized, or thus enrolled among 
the stars, must needs survive all other traditions of men, and 
stand forth in perpetual characters to the end of time. 

In arranging the constellations of the Zodiac, for instance, 
It would be natural for tjiem, we may imagine, to represent 
those stars which rose with the sun in the spring of the year, 
by such animals as the shepherds held in the greatest esteem 
at that season ; accordingly, we find Aries, Taurus, and 
Gemini, as the symbols of March, April, and May. 

* The usual size of artificial globes, designed to represent the celestial sphere, is 
from 9 to IS inches in diameter. Globes have been recently constructed in Germanv, 
which are said to be more splendid and complete than any in the worlil. The largest 
ever made are that of Gottori>, two in the library of the late king of France, and one 
in Pembroke college, Cambridge. 

The globe of Gottorp, now in the Academy of Sciences at Petersburg, is a lar?e 
hollow sphere, eleven and a half feet in diameter, containing a table and seats for 
twelve persons. The inside represents the visible surHice of the heavens, bespanirlcd 
with gilded stars, ranged in their proper order and magnitude, and by means of a cu- 
rious piece of mechanism by which it is put in motion, exhibits the true position o<" 
the stars, at any time, together with their rising and setting. The convex surface, or 
outside of this globe, represents the terrestrial sphere. 

In 1704, two globes of equal dimensions, it is said, were made for Canlinal d'Estrees, 
by Cornelli, a Venitian, and deposited in the king's library at Paris. These, however, 
are far inferior in size to one of similar construction, erected at Pembroke college, In 
the University of Cambridge, by the late Dr. Long, president of that institution. Thi« 
Is a hollow sphere, sufficiently capacious to admit thirty persons to sit within it, 
where they can observe the artificial world of stars and planets, revolving over their 
heail3,in the same order as they are seen in the heavens. This sphere is eighteen feet 
In diameter. 

What opinion has Sir Isaac Newton advanced upon this subject? Have we however, 
any accounts of the constellations, of a hiL'her antiquitv than that event? Do anv of 
the ancient constellations refer to transactions of a later date? What have the riiost 
earned antiquarians of Europe done upon this subject, and of what do thev assure us? 
fl^w long would the memory of an action, or event, thus registered, be likely tn 
enoiire ? In arri^uiging the constellations of the Zodiac, how was it natural to represent 
the stars 1 



CONSTELLATIONS, 14^ 

Wnen the sun enters the sign Cancer, at the summer soi- 
^.. ce, he discontmues his progress towards the north pole, ariU 
he ins to return towards the south pole. This retrograde mo 
tion was fitly represented by a Crab, which is said to go back- 
wards. The sun enters this sign about the 22d of June. 

The heat w^hich usually follows in the next month, was 
represented by the Lion ; an animal remarkable for its fierce- 
ness, and which at this season was frequently impelled bv 
thhst, to leave the sandy desert, and make its appearance ^n 
the banks of the Nile. 

The sun entered the sixth sign about the time of harrest, 
which season was therefore represented by a Virgin, or female 
reaper, with an ear of corn in her hand. 

At the autumnal equinox, when the sun enters "Libra, the 
days and nights are equal all over the world, and seem to ob- 
serve an equilibrium or balance. The sign was therefore 
represented imder the symbol of a pair of Scales. 

Autumn, which produces fruit in great abundance, brings 
with it a variety of diseases, and on this account was repre- 
sented by that venomous animal the Scorpion, which, as he 
recedes, wounds with a sting in his tail. The fall of the leaf 
was the season for hunting, and the stars which mark the 
sun's path at this time were represented by a huntsman, or 
archer, v/ith his arrows and weapons of destruction. 

The Goat, which delights in climbing and ascending some 
mountain or precipice, is the emblem of the vrinter solstice, 
w^hen the sun begins to ascend from the southern tropic, and 
gradually to increase in height for the ensuing half year. 

Aquarius, or the Water-Bearer, is represented by the figure 
of a man pouring out water from an urn, an emblem of the 
dreary and uncomfortable season of Avinter. 

The last of the zodiacal constellations was Pisces, or a 
jouple of fishes, tied Lack to back, representing the fishing 
season. The severity of vdnter is over; the flocks do not 
afford sustenance, but the seas and rivers are open and abound 
with fish. 

"Thus monstrous forms, o'er heaven's nocturnal arch 
Seen by the sage, in pomp celestial march; 
See Aries there his glittering bow unfold, 
And raging Taurus toss his horns of gold; 
With bended buw the sullen Archer lowers, 
And there Aquarius comes with all his showers ; 

What sign was represented under the figure of a Cralj, and ^vhy ? When does thj 
«5un enter this sign? AVhat annual represented the heat of siniur^er, raidwh}'? Whea 
does the sun enter the sLxth sign, and how is this season repi'esei-i'ea Wh)- was t'-^ 
sign which the sun enters at the autumnal equinox represented unu^r the symbol of 
a Balance? Vv'hy were the autumnal sisi.s, Scorpio and Sagittarius, represent^ 
they are? AVhat does tiie Goat represent Wliat is signified by the 'Vt u-ti" r-arr? 
WhiiL do the Fishes represent? 

13* 



150 ORIGIN OF THP 

Lions and Centaurs, Gordons, Hydras rise, 
And gods and heroes blaze alonsr the skies."* 

Whatever may have led to the adoption of these rude names 
at first, they are now retained to avoid confusion. 

The early Greeks, however, displaced many of the Chal- 
dean constellations, and substituted such images in their place 
as had a more special reference to their own history. The 
Romans, also, pursued the same course with regard to their 
history ; and hence the contradictory accounts that have de- 
sce ded to later times. 

Some, moreover, w'lXh. a desire to divest the science of the 
stars of its pagan jargon and profanity, have been induced to 
alter both the names and figures of the constellations. In 
doing this, they have committed the opposite fault ; that of 
blending them with things sacred. The "venerable Bede," 
for example, instead of the profane names and figures of the 
twelve constellations of the Zodiac, substituted those of the 
twelve, apostles. Julius Schillerius, following his example, 
completed the reformation in 1627, by giving Scripture names 
to all the constellations in the heavens. Weigelius, ^oo, a 
celebrated professor of mathematics in the university of Jena, 
made a new order of constellations, by converting the firma- 
ment into a ccELUM heraldicum, in which he introduced the 
arms of all the princes of Europe. But astronomers, gene- 
rally, never approved of these innovations ; and for ourselves, 
we had as lief the sages and heroes of antiquity should con- 
tinue to enjoy their fancied honours in the sky, as to see their 
places supplied by the princes of Europe. 

The number of the old constellations, including those of 
the Zodiac, was only forty-eight. As men advanced in the 
knowledge of the stars, they discovered many, but chiefly in 
southern latitudes, which were not embraced in the old con- 
stellations, an^ .lence arose that mixture of ancient and mod 
em names which we meet with in modern catalogues. 

* The order of the signs is thus described by Dr. Watts :— 

The Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Ttoina 

And next the Crab, the Lion shines, 

The Virgin, and the Scale-f ; 

The Scorpion, Archer, and Sea-Goat, 

The Man that holds the Water-Pot, 

And Fish, with glittering tails. 
Similar to this are the Latin verses :— 

Sunt, aries, taunts, g-emini, cancer, leo, virgo, 
Lihraque, scorpius, arcitenens, caper, amphora, places. 

Why have attempts been made to change the names and figures of the ancient con- 
stellations? What fault has been committed in doing this J What did the veneriil>le 
Bcile substitute for the profane names and figures of the twelve constellations of the 
Zodiac- Who followed his cxajnple, and to what extent? What other changu was 
attempted, and by whom? IIa\e astronomers generally approved of tlicse innovv 
lions: What was the number of the old constellations? Whence is the mixture o/ 
ancient and modern names i^'hicl, we meet with In modem catalogues? 



CONSTELLATIONS. 15l 

Astronomers divide the. heavens into three parts^ cealed the 
northern and southern hemispheres, and the Zodiac. In the 
northern hemisphere, astronomers usually reckon thirty-four 
constellations ; in the Zodiac twelve, and in the southern 
hemisphere forty-seven ; making, in all, ninety-three. Besides 
these, there are a few of inferior note, recently formed, which 
are not considered sufficiently important to be particularly 
described. 

About the year 1603, John Bayer, a native of Germany, 
invented the convenient system of denoting the stars in each 
constellation by the letters of the Greek alphabet, applying 
to the largest star the first letter of the alphabet ; to the next 
largest the second letter, and so on to the last. Where there 
are more stars in the constellation than there are Greek let- 
ters, the remainder are denoted by the letters of the Roman 
alphabet, and sometimes by figures. By this system of no- 
tation, it is now as easy to refer to any particular star in the 
heavens, as to any particular house in a populous city, by its 
street and number. 

Before this practice was adopted, it was customary to de- 
note the stars by referring them to their respective situations 
in the figure of the constellation to which they severally be- 
longed, as the head, the arm, the foot, &c. 

It is hardly necessary to remark that these figures, which 
are all very curiously depicted upon artificial globes and maps, 
are, purely, a fanciful invention — answering many convenient 
ends, however, for purposes of reference and classification, as 
they enable us to designate with facility any particular star, 
or cluster of stars; though these clusters Yerj rarely, if ever,, 
represent the real figures of the object whose names they bear. 
And yet it is somewhat remarkable that the name of " Great 
Bear,'" for instance, should have been given to the very same 
constellation by a nation of American aborigines, (the Iro- 
quois.) and by the most ancient Arabs of Asia, when there 
never had been any communication between them ! Among 
other nations, ako, between whom there exists no evidence 
of any intercourse, we find the Zodiac divided into the same 
number of constellations, and these distinguished by nearly 
the same names, representing the twelve months, tor seasons 
of the year. 

The histoiy of this whimsical personification of the stars 
cariies us back to the earliest times, and introduces us, as we 
have seen, to the languages and customs, the religion and 

How do astronomers usually divide the heavens, and what is the number of con- 
stellations in each division? What convenient system of notation has been invented 
for denoting the stars in each cons'.ellation 1 Who invented this system 1 Before thia 
method was introduced, what was the pnictice '' 



152 NUMBEK, ulbl'ANCE, AND 

poetry, tne sciences and arts, the tastes, talents, and pecii'in 
genius, of the early nations of the earth. The ancient AiImi- 
tides and Ethiopians, the Egyptian priests, the magi of Per- 
sia, the shepherds of Chaldea, the Bramins of India, the n\an- 
darins of China, the Phoenician navigators, the philosophers 
of Greece, and the wandering Arabs, have all added more 
or less to these curious absurdities and ingenious inven- 
tions, and have thus registered among the stars, as m a sort 
of album, some memorial of themselves and of the times in 
which they lived. The constellations, or the uncouth figures 
by which they are represented, are a faithful picture of the 
ruder stages of civilization. They ascend to times of which 
no other record exists ; and are destined to remain when all 
others shall be lost. Fragments of history, curious dates and 
documents relating to chronology, geography, and languages, 
are here preserved in imperishable characters. The adven- 
tures of the gods, and the inventions of men, the exploit^ of 
heroes, and the fancies of poets, are here spread out in the 
heavens, and perpetually celebrated before all nations. The 
Seven stars, and Orion, present themselves to us, as they 
appeared to Amos and Homer: as they appeared to Job, more 
than 3000 years ago, when the Almighty demanded of him — 
" Knowesl thou the ordinances of heaven ? Canst thou bind 
the sM'eet influences of the Pleiades, or loose the bands of 
Orion ? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season, 
or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons ?" Here, too, 
are consecrated the lyre of Orpheus, and the ship of the Ar- 
gonauts ; and, in the same firmament, glitter the mariner's 
compass and the telescope of HerscKel. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

NUMBER, DISTANCE, AND ECONOMy OF THE STARS. 

The first conjecture in relation to the distance of the fixed 
stars, is, that they are all placed at an equal distance from the 
observer, upon the visible surface of an immense concave 
vault, which rests upon the circular boundary of the world, 
and which we call the Firmament. 

We can with the una«5sisted eye, form no estimate of their 
respective distances; nor has the telescope yet enabled us to 
arrive at any exact results on this subject, although it has re- 
vealed to us many millions of stars that are as far remov^ed 

"What is the first, conjecture which we form in relntion to the distances of the flxod 
stars ? What means have we for ascertaining their numher ami disUni« 1 



ECONOMY OF THE STAltS. 153 

beyond those which are barely visible to the naked eye, as 
these are from us. Viewed through the telescope, ihe hea- 
vens become quite another spectacle — not only to the under- 
standing, but to the senses. New worlds burst upon the sight, 
and old ones expand to a thousand times their former dimen- 
sions. Several of those little stars which but feebly twinkle 
cai the unassisted eye, become immense globes, with land 
and water, mountains and valleys, encompassed by atmos- 
pheres, enlightened by moons, and diversified by day and 
night, summer and winter. 

Beyond these are other suns, giving light and life to other 
systems, not a thousand, or two thousan j. merely, but multi- 
plied without end, and ranged all around us, at immense dis- 
tances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten 
thousand worlds, all in rapid motion ; yet calm, regular and 
harmonious — ail space seems to be illuminated, and every 
particle of light a world. 

It has been computed that one hundred millions of stars 
which cannot be discerned by the naked eye, are now visibk 
through the telescope. And yet all this vast assemblage of 
suns and worlds may bear no greater proportion to what lies 
beyond the utmost boundaries of human vision, than a drop 
of water to the ocean ; and, if stricken out of being, would be 
no more missed, to an eye that could take in the universe, 
than the fall of a single leaf from the forest. 

We should therefore learn, (says an eminent divine of the 
present century,*) not to look on our earth as the universe of 
God, but as a single, insignificant atom of it ; that it is only 
one of the many mansions which the Supreme Being has 
created for the accommodation of his worshippers ; and that 
he may now be at work in regions more distant than geome- 
try ever measured, creating worlds more manifold than num- 
bers ever reckoned, displaying his goodness, and spreading 
over all, the intimate visitations of his care. 

The immense distance at which the nearest stars are known 
to be placed, proves that they are bodies of a prodigious size, 
not inferior to our sun, and that they shine, not by reflected rays, 
but by their own native light. It is therefore concluded, with 
good reason, that every fixed star is a sun, no less spacious 
than ours, surrounded by a retinue of planetary worlds, which 

* Chalmers. 

How do the heavens appear through the telescope ? What are bej'ond those little 
Stars which are scarcely visible to the naked eye? How many stars are visible 
through the telescoi^e ? ^ hat proportion may this vast assemblage of suns and worlds 
Bear to what lies beyond the utmost boundaries of human vision? How should we 
learn from this to rceard our own earth; What does the immensedistance of the stars 
fj-ov^ in regard to their magnitude and light? 



154 NUMBER, DISrANCE, AND 

revolve around it as a centre, and derive from it light and 
beat, and the agreeable vicissitudes of day and night. 

These vast globes of light, then, could never have been de- 
signed merely to diversify the voids of intinite space, nor to 
Rhed a few glimmering rays on our far distant world, for the 
amusement of a few astronomers, who, but for the most pow- 
erful telescopes, had never seen the ten thousandth part of 
them. We may therefore rationally conclude, that wherever 
the All-wise Creator has exerted his creative power, there 
also he has placed intelligent beings to adore his goodness. 

Hipparchus, the father of astronomy, first made a catalogue of the fixed 
stars. It comained 1022. The accmacy with which the places of these were 
recorded, has conferred efcsemial benefit upon the science, and has enabled us 
to solve many celestial phenomena and problems of chronology, which other- 
wise had been diffi'^ult. 

During the ISth century, upwards of 100,000 were catalogued by the various 
astronomers of Europe, ana their position in the heavens determined with an 
exactness that seldom varied a second from the truth; insomuch that it hag 
been justly remarked, that •' there is scarcely a star to be seen in the heavens, 
whose place and situation is not better known than that of most cities and towns 
upon the earth." 

But the stargazers of our times are not idle. Professor Bessell of Konigs- 
berg. observed in three years, it is asserted, between 30,000 and 40,000 stars, 
comprehended within a zone of 15^ on each side of the equator ; but even tiiis 
great number is but a small portion of the whole number which lie within the 
limit of the zone which he examined. To procure a more complete survey, the 
academy of Berlin proposed that this same zone should be parcelled out among 
twenty- four observers, and that each should confine himself to an hour of right 
ascension, and examine it in minute detail. This plan was adopted ; and the l-;th 
hour was confided to Professor Inghirami, of Florence, and examined with so 
much care, that the positions of 7.5.000 stars in it have been determined. Pro- 
fessor M. Struve, of tne Dorpat university, has examined in person, 120,000 stars, 
of which SOO (double ones) were before unknown to science. 

The labours of Sir VVm. Herschel were chietly devoted to exploring the sys- 
tems of nebulae and double stars that he, for the most part, beyond the reach of 
ordinary telescopes. No fewer than two thctusand five hundred nebulae were 
obsei~ved by this indefatigable astronomer, whose places have been computed 
from his observations, reduced to a common epoch, and arranged into a cata- 
logue in order of their right ascension, by his sister Miss Caroline Herschel, 
a lady so justly celebrated in Europe for her astronomical knowledge and dis- 
coveries, out whose name, sti-ange as it is, is seldom mentioned in this country. 
E,e it remembered, nevertheless, for her fame, that slie discovered two of the 
satellites of the planet which bears her brother's name, besides a multitude of 
comets. 

The greatest possible ingenuity and pains have been taken 
by astronomers to determine, at least, tlie approximate dis- 
tance of the nearest fixed stars. If they have hitherto been 
unable to arrive at any satisfactory result, they have at lea=t, 
established a limit beyond which the stars must necessarily 
be placed. If they have failed to calculate their true distan- 
ces from the earth, it is because they have not the requisite 
data. The solution of the problem, H they had the data, 
would not be more difficult than to compute the relative dis- 

Whai conclusion maybe drawn from this feet d& to their great design? What jiafnt 
have astronomers taken to find tlse distance of the strir.s. ;ind what result havo they 
eome to? For what reason l-ave they falletl to calculate their distance J Is the pnw- 
lem a difficult one } 



ECONOMY OF THE STARS. 155 

eaiices of the planets — a thing Tvhich any school-Loy can do. 
lu estimating so great a distance as the nearest fiked star, 
it IS necessary that we employ the longest measure which 
astronomy can use. Accordingly, we take the wliole di^me- 
■er of the earth's orbit, which, in round numbers, is 190 millions 
of miles, and endeavour, by a simple process in mathematics, 
to ascertain how many measures of this length are contained 
m the mighty interval which separates us from the stars. 

The method of doing this can be explained to the appre- 
iiension of the pupil, if he does not shrink from the illustra- 
tion, through an idle fear that it is beyond his capacity. 

For example : suppose that, with an instrument construct- 
ed for the purpose, we should this night take the precise bear- 
ing or angular direction from us of some star in the northern 
hemisphere, and note it down with the most perfect exact- 
ness, and, having waited just six months, when the earth 
shall have arrived at the opposite point of its orbit, 190 mill- 
ions of miles east of the place Avhich we now occupy, we 
should then repeat our observation upon the same star, and 
see how much it had changed its position by our travelling 
so great a distance one side of it. Now it is evident, that if 
it changes its apparent position at all, the quantity of the 
change will bear some proportion to the distance gone over ; 
that is, the nearer the star, the greater the angle ; and the 
more remote the star, the less the angle. It is to be observed, 
that the angle thus found, is called the star's Annual Par- 
allax. 

But it is found by the most eminent astronomers of the 
age, and the most perfect instruments ever made, that this 
parallax does not exceed the four thousandth part of a de- 
gree^ or a single second ; so that, if the whole great orbit of 
the earth were lighted up into a globe of fire 600 millions of 
miles in cu-cum.ference, it would be seen from the nearest star 
only as a twinkling atom ; and to an observer placed at this 
distance, our sun, with its whole retinue of planetary worlds, 
would occupy a space scarcely exceeding the thickness of a 
spider's web.* If the nearest of the fixed stars are placed at 

* A just idea of the import of this tenrt, will impart a force and sublimity tc an ex- 
pression of St. James, which no power of words could improve. It is said, Chapter L 
verse 17., of Him from whom cometh down every good and perfect gift, that there is 
" ovx, ivi VdLpdLXXnyn » rpoTTn? cL7roo-iaaL<ry.A." Literally, There is "neither 'par 
aXlax nor shadow of change ;" As if the apostle had said— PeradA^entiire, that in tra- 
velling millions and millions of miles through the regions of immensity, there maybe 
a sensible parallax to some of the fixed stars ; yet:''as to the Father of Lights, view 
him from whatever ix)int of his Empire we may, he u without parallax or shadoio of 
change ! 

^Vhat measure is employed in estimating the distances of the fixed stars? Ho-W 
Is It used? What is the angle thus found called? What is the greatest magnitude W 
<he annual parallax? 



,o6 NUMBER. DISTANCE, AND 

such inconceivable distances in the regions of space, with 
what line shall we measure the distance of those which are 
a thousand or a million of times as much farther from them, 
as tlfese are from us. 

If the annual parallax of a star were accurately known, il 
would be easy to compute its distance by the following rule* 
As the sine of the star's parallax : 
Is to radius, or ninety degrees : : 
So is the Earth's distance from the sun-' 
To the star's distance from the sun. 
If we allow the annual parallax of the nearest star to be 
1^', the calculation will be, 
As 0.00000484S1368=Nat. Sine of 1". 
Is to 1.0000000000000=Nat. Sine of 90°. 
So is 95,273,S6S.867748554=Earth's distance from the sun. 
To 19,6'51,627,683,449=Star's distance from the sun. 

In this calculation we have supposed the earth to be placed at the mean di* 
tance of 2-1.047 of its own seiiii-diauieters, or 95,273.868.S6774S554 miles from the 
sun, which inalvc-s the star's distance a very little less than twenty billions of 
miles. Dr. Herschel savs that Sirius cannot be nearer than 10O,0lX) times the 
diameter of the earth's orbit, or 19.007,788,800,000 of miles. 

Biot, who either takes the earth's distance greater than he lays it down in his 
Truite' Elementaire d' Astronomie Physiaue, or has uiade an errour in fis:uro.s- 
makes the distance 20,086,868,036.404. Dr. Brewster makes it 20.159.665.000.006 
aiiles. A mean of these computations, is 20 biUious; that is, 20 millions of milt 
ions of miles, to a parallax of \" 

Astronomers are generally agreed in the opinion that the annual parallax of 
the stars is less than 1", and con.sequently tiiat the nearest of them is placed at 
a much greater distance from us, than these calculations make it. It was, how- 
ever, announced during the la.?t year, that M. D'Assas. a French astronomefj 
had satisfactorily established the annual parallax o{ Keid. (a small star 8° N. of 
Gamma Eridani.) to be 2", that of Rigel, in Orion to be 1". 43. and that of Siriua 
to be 1". 24. If these results may be relied on. Keid is but 10 billions, Rigel but 
14 billions, and Sirius 16 billions of miles from the earth. This latter distance is, 
however, so great that, if Sirius were to fall towards the earth at the rale of a 
million of miles a day, it would take it forty three thousand, three hundred years 
to reach the earth ; or, if the Almiahty were now to blot it out of the heavens, its 
brilliance would f^ptinue undiminished in our hemisphere for the space of three 
years. \- 

The most brilliant stars, till recently, were supposed to be 
situated nearest the earth, but later observations prove that 
this opinion is not well founded, since some of the smaller 
stars appear to have, not only a greater annual parallax, but 
an absolute motion in space, much greater than those of the 
brightest class. 

What conclusion may be drawn from this fact in regard to the distance.s of the fixed 
gtars? If the annual pamllax of a star were known, hv what sfmi»Ie rule could 
you compute its (list.'ince? If we allow the amuial parallax of the nearest star to be 
l", what will its dl.stance be? What w a mean of the calyulations ofdifftrent astron- 
omers, for a paratlej: of}" ? Uliat recent obtfervafione indicate a greater paralta* 
to some of the'stam 7 If the ■paralla-x of SiriiM be i" .24. loha/ xoill he its distance ? 
How long tootild it require, passing through this distance, at the rate of a miltion of 
mile* a day, to reach the earth, and hmo long iponld its light continue, undiminished 
to lis, locre it to be blotted from the heavens ? What ha.s been supposed to be the rel.v 
Uv» Uisuince of the most brilliant stars from the earth ? What do Liter ob,ser\'<-itioji« 
prove, in regard to this opinion) 



CC0X03IY OF THE STARS. 157 

'It has been computed that the light of Sirius, although 
twenty thousand million times less than that of our Sun, is, 
nevertheless, three hundred and twenty-four times greater than 
that of a star of the sixth magnitude. If we suppose the two 
stars to be really of the same size, it is easy to show that the 
star of the sixth magnitude is fifty-seven and one third times 
farther from us than Sirius is, because light diminishes as the 
square of the distance of the luminous body increases. 

By rhe same reasoning it may be shown, that if Sirius were placed where the 
6nn'is, it would appear to us to be four times as large as the Sun, and give four 
times as mUch light and heat. It is by no means unreasonable to suppose, that 
many of the fixed stars exceed a million of miles in diameter. 

We may pretty safely afiirm, then, that stars of the sixth 
magnitude, are not less than 900 millions of millions of miles 
distant from us ; or a million of times farther from us than the 
planet Satm-n, which is scarcely visible to the naked eye. 
But the human mind, in its present state, can no more appre- 
ciate such distances than it can infinity ; for if our earth, 
which moves at more than the inconceivable velocity of a mill- 
ion and a half of miles a day, were to be hurried from its orbit, 
ana to take the same rapid flight over this immense tract, it 
would not traverse it in sixteen hundred thousand years; 
and every ray of light, although it moves at the rate of one 
hundred and ninety-three thousand miles in a single second 
of time, is more than one hundred and seventy years in com- 
ing from the star to us. 

But what is even this, compared with that measureless ex- 
tent which the discoveries of the telescope indicate ? Ac- 
cording to Dr. Herschel, the light of some of the nebulse, 
just perceptible through his 40 feet telescope, must have been 
a million of ages in coming to the earth; and should any of 
them be now destroyed, they would continue to be perceptible 
for a million of ages to come. 

Dr. Herschel informs us, that the glass which he used, would separate stars 
at 497 times the distance of Sirius. 

It is one of the wonders of creation that any phenomena 
of bodies at suuh an immense distance from us should be 
perceptible by human sight; but it is a part of the Divine 
Jklaker's plan, that although they do not act physically upon 
us, yet they should so far be objects of our perception, as 

Suppose the light of Sirius to be twentj' thousand million times less than that of 
our sun, how would it compare with that of a star of the sixtii magnitude ^ If we 
suppose tlie tv.-o stars to be of the same size, how much farther off is the star of the 
sixth magnitude, than Sirius is? Suppose Sirius to be placed where our Sun is. hoio 
would its apparent magnitude, and itn light and heat compare loith those- of the »un 7 
What n*.iy we generally affirm of the distance of stars of the sixth maHnitude ? Can 
the hunum mind appreciate such distances? AVhal illustrations can j'ou give to show 
their imriiensixy? Wiiat is tills distance compared with that of the telescopic stars, 
and the aebula^i Why ars we able to see bodies at so great a distance? 



159 NUMBER. DISTANCE, AND 

to expand our ideas of the vastness of the universe, and of 
the stupendous extent and operations of his omnipoteuce. 

"With these facts before us," says an eminent astronomer 
and divine, '"it is most reasonable to conclude, that those ex- 
pressions in the Mosaic history of Creation, which relates to 
the creation of the fixed stars, are not to be understood as 
referrinor to the time when they were brought into existence, 
as if they had been created about the same time with our 
earth ; but as simply declaring the fact, that, at whatever pe- 
riod in duration they were created, they derived their exist- 
ence from God?'' 

"That the stars here mentioned," {Gen. i. 16.) says a dis- 
tinguished commentator,* " were the planets of our system, 
and not the fixed stars, seems a just inference from the fact, 
that after mentioning them, Moses immediately subjoins, 
'And Elohim set them in the firmament of the heaven to 
give light upon the earth, and to rule over the day and over 
the night;' evidently alluding to Venus and Jupiter, which 
are alternately our morning and evening stars, and which 
'give light upon ihe earth,' far surpassmg in brilliancy any 
of the fixed stars.-' 

However vast the univers^e now appears; however numerous the worlds 
wliich may exist withui its boumlless range, the language of Scripture, and 
Scripture alone, is sufficiently comprehensive and sul)lime, to express x\\ th«. 
*!mutions which naturally arise in the mind, when contemplating its structure. 
This shows not only the harmony which subsists between the discoveries of 
the Revelation and the discoveries of Science, but also forms by itself a strong 
presumptive evidence, that the records of the Bible are authentic and divine. 

We have hitherto described the stars as being immoveable 
and at rest ; but from a series of observations on double stars, 
Dr. Herschel found that a great many of them have changed 

' their situations with regard to each other ; that some perform 
revolutions about others, at known and regular periods^ and 
that the motion of some is direct, while that of others is re- 
trograde ; 'and that many of them have dark spots upon theii 
surface, and turn on their axes, like the sun. 

j^ A remarkable change appears to be gradually taking place 
in the relative distances of the stars from each other in the 
constellation Hercules. The stars in this region appear to 
be spreading farther and farther apart, while those in the 
opposite point of the heavens seem to close nearer and nearer 
together in the same manner as when walking through a 

* S. Tyrner, F. S. A. R. A. S. L., 1832. 

With these facts before us, what may we reasonably conclude with recarrt to the 
expressions in the Mosaic histor>' which relate to the creation of the fixcil stars ? 
What is the opinion of Mr. Turner in rcsard to the stars here mentioned? To what 
Is the expression, "To rule over the dav and over the ni^ht," supposed to slluilei 
Give some account of the real motions of the lixed stars. What remarkable cliangei 
sure taking place in the constellation Hercules' 



ECONOMY OF THE STARS. 159 

<<'rest, the trees towards which we advance, appear to be 
constantly separating, while the distance between those 
which we leave behind, is gradually contracting. 

From this appearance it is concluded, that the Sur., with 
all its retinue of planetary worlds, is moving through the re- 
gions of the universe, towards some distant centre, or around 
some wide circumference, at the rate of sixty or seventy 
thousand miles an hour; and that it is therefore highly prob 
able, if not absolutely certain, that we shall never occupy 
that portion of absolute space, through which we are at this 
moment passing, during all the succeeding ages of eternity.* 

The author of the Christian Philosopher endeavours to 
convey some idea of the boundless extent of the universe, 
by the following sublime illustration : — 

" Suppose that one of the highest order of intelligences is 
endowed with a power of rapid motion superior to that of 
light, and with a corresponding degree of intellectual energy; 
that he has been flying without intermission, from one pro- 
rince of creation to another, for six thousand years, and will 
continue the same rapid course for a thousand millions years 
fo come; it is highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that, 
at the end of this vast tour, he would have advanced no far- 
ther than the ' suburbs of creation,' — and that all the m.agnifi- 
cent systems of material and intellectual beings he had sur- 
veyed, during his rapid flight, and for such a length of ages, 
Dear no more nroportion to the whole empire of Omnipotence, 
than the sm?'l^3t grain of sand does to all the particles of 
L^atter conta' ed in ten thousand worlds." 

Were a se iph, in prosecuting the tour of creation in the 
manner nov stated, ever to arrive at a limit beyond which 
no farther plays of the Divinity could be perceived, the 
thought wo overwhelm his faculties with unutterable emo- 
tions ; he V , ^uld teel thai he had now, in some measure, 
comprehended all the plans and operations of Omnipotence, 
and that no farther manifestation of the Divine glory remain- 
ed to be explored. But we may rest assured that this can 
never happen in the case of any created intelligence. 

There is moreover an arg-ument derivable from the laws of the physical 
world, that seems to strengthen, I had ahnost said, to confirm, this idea of the 
[njiraty of the material universe. It is this — If the number of stars bejinite, 
and occupy only apart of space, the outward stars would be continually attracted 

♦Professor Bessel does not fall in with this prevailing opinion. 

What conclusion is drawn from this appearance? Shall we then probably ever 
occupy that portion of space through which we are now passing, again? What illua- 
tration does the author of the Christian Philosopher give in brde'x to convey some 
idea of the boundless extent of the universe? Were a seraph ever to arrive at a limit 
beyond winch no farther displays of the divine glorj- could be perceived, how would 
the -dea aftect him? Is it probable that such a place exists in the ur jverse, or with'ai 
Ihe scope of any created intelligence ? 



leO FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. 

to th 'se within, and in time would unite in on-e. Btit if the nnmber be infinite, und 
thf.y occupy an infinite space, all parts would be nearly in equilibrio, and coTk 
acquenlly each fixed star, being equally attracted in every direction, would 
keep its 2)lace. 

No wonder, then, that the Psalmist was so affected with 
the idea of the immensity of the universe, that he seems 
almost afraid lest he should be overlooked amidst the im- 
mensity of beings that must needs be under the superintend- 
ence of God ; or that any finite mortal should exclaim, when 
contemplating the heavens — "What is man, that THOU art 
mindful of him !" 



CHAPTER XVII. 

FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. 

The phenomenon of shooting stars, as it is called, is com- 
mon to all parts of the earth ; but is most frequently seen in 
tropical regions. The unerring aim, the startling velocity, 
and vivid brightness with which they seem to dart athwart 
the sky, and as suddenly expire, excite our admiration; and 
we often ask, " What can they be ?" 

But frequent as they are, this interesting phenomenon is 
not well understood. Some imagine that they are occasioned 
by electricity, and others, that they are nothing but luminous 
gas. Others again have supposed, that some of them are 
luminous bodies which accompany the earth in its revolution 
around the sun, and that their return to certain places might 
be calculated with as much certainty and exactness as that 
of any of the comets. 

Dr. Burney, of Gosport, kept a record of all that he ob- 
served in the course of several years. The number which 
he noticed in 1819, was 121, and' in 1S20, he saw 131. Pro- 
fessor Green is confident that a much larger number are an- 
nually seen in the United States. 

Signior Baccaria supposed, they were occasioned by elec- 
tricity, and thinks this opinion is confirmed by the following 
observations. About an hour after sunset, he and some 
friends, that were with him, observed a falling star, directing 
its course directly towards them, and apparently growmg 
larger and larger, but just before it reached them it disap- 



Where does the phenomenon of falling, or shootin? stars occur? What is there to 
excite our admiration in this phenomenon? Is this interestin? [ihenomcnon well on 
derstood? What are the lUlTcrent opinions in rcpanl to them? How many shooting 
stars did Dr. Burney observe in the years 1819 and 1S'20? Is it jirobahle that ■\ mu<ft 
larger number is seen every year in the United States? What did Baccaria suppose 
Ihey were occasioned by, and what observations Jid he make to strengthen his 
cpinion? 



FALLING, OK SHOOTING STARS. 164 

peared. On vanishing, their faces, hands, and clothes, with 
:juu earth, and all the neighbouring objects, became suddenly 
illuminated with a diffused and lambent light. It was attend- 
ed with no noise. During their surprise at this appearance, 
a servant informed them, that he had seen a light shine sud- 
denly in the garden, and especially upon the streams Avhich 
he was throwing to water it. 

The Signior also observed a quantity of electric matter col- 
lect about his kite, which had very much the appearance of a 
falling star. Sometimes he saw a kind of halo accompanying 
the kite, as it changed its place, leaving some glimmering of 
light in the place it had quitted. 

Shooting stars have been supposed by those meteorologists 
who refer them to electricity or luminous gas, to prognosticate 
changes in the weather, such as rain, wind, &c. ; and there 
is, perhaps, some truth in this opinion. The duration of the 
brilliant tract which they leave behind them, in their motion 
through the air, will probably be found to be longer or shorter, 
according as watery vapour abounds in the atmosphere. 

The notion that this phenomenon betokens high winds, is 
of great antiquity. Virgil, in the first book of his Georgdes, 
expresses the same idea : — 

"Scepe eaam Stellas vento impendente ridebis 
Prsecipites coelo labi ; noctisque per umbram 
Flanimarum longos a tergo albescere tractus. 
And oft, before tempestuous winds arise, 
The seeming stars fall headlong from the skies, 
And shooting through the darkness, gild the night * 
With sweeping glories and long trails of light." 

The number of shooting stars, observed in a single night, 
though variable, is commonly very small. There are, how- 
ever, several instances on record of their falling in "showers" 
— when every star in the firmament seems loosened from its 
sphere, and moving m lawless flight from one end of the 
heavens to the other. As early as the year 472, in the month 
-f November, a phenomenon of this kind took place near 
Constantinople. As Theophanes relates, " The sky appeared 
to be on fire." with the corruscations of the flying meteors. 

A shower of stars, exactly similar took place in Canada, between the 3d and 
4th of July, 1814, and another at Montreal, in November, 1819. In all these cases, 
a residuum, or black dust, was deposited upon the surface of the waters, and upon 
the roofs of buildings, and other objects. In the year 1810, "inflamed sub- 
stances," it is said, fell into and around lake Van, in Armenia, which stained the 
water of a blood colour, and cleft the earth in various places. On the 5th of 

%Vhat was the appearance upon streams of water? "WTiat did he observe at this 
time aljout his kite? What connexion are the}' supposed to have with meteorology? 
What circumstance may we probably find to confirm this idea? Is this notion of ver/ 
anciont, or of modem date? What is, usually, the number of shootinjr stars observed 
in cc single nisht? When, and where, occurred the first instance, on record, •f their 
falli'ig in great numbers ? Mention some other instsuices. WTiat remarkable vestiga 
was lefi by these meteoric showers? 

14* 



164? FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. 

September, 1819, a like phenomenon was seen in Moravia. History furnishea 
many more instances of meteoric showers, depositing a tea dust, in some placea, 
so plentiful as to admit of chymical analysis. 

The commissioner, (Mr. Andrew Ellicott,) who was sent 
out by uur go\^ernment lo fix the boundary between the Spanish 
possessions in North America and the United States, witness 
ed a very extraordinary flight of shooting stars, which filled 
the whole atmosphere from Cape Florida to the West India 
Islands. This grand phenomenon took place the 12th of 
November, 1799, and is thus described : — " I was called up," 
says Mr. Ellicott, "about 3 o'clock in the morning, to see the 
shooting stars, as they are called. The phenomenon was 
grand and awful. The whole heavens appeared as if illu* 
minated with skyrockets, which disappeared only by the light 
of the sun, after daybreak. The meteors, which at any one 
instant of time, appeared as numerous as the stars, flew in 
ail possible directions except /rom the earth, towards which 
they all inclined more or less, and some of them descended 
perpendicularly over the vessel we were in, so that I was in 
constant expectation of their falling on us." 

Mr. Ellicott further states that his thermometer which had 
been at 80*^ Fahr. for the four days preceding, fell to 56*^ 
about 4 o'clock, A. M., and that nearly at the same time, the 
wind changed from the south to the northwest, from Avhence 
It blew with great violence for three days without intermissica. 

These same appearances were observed, the same night, 
at Santa Fe de Bogota, Cumana, Q^uito, and Peru, in Souih 
America ; and as far north as Labrador and Greenland, ex- 
tending to Weimar" in Germany, being thus visible over an 
extent on the globe of 64° of latitude, and 94° of longitude. 

The celebrated Humboldt, accompanied by M. Bompland, then in S. America, 
thus .s[)eaks of the phenomenon: — "Towards the morning of the 13th of No- 
vember, 1799, we witnessed a most extraordinary scene of shooting meteors. 
Thousands of bolides, and falUng stars succeeded eacli other during four hours. 
Their direction was very regular from north to south. From the beginning of 
the phenomenon there was not a space in the firmament, equal in extent to 
three diameters of the moon, which was not filled, every instant, with bolides 
or falling stars. All the meteors left luminous traces, or phosphorescent bands 
behind tliem, wliich lasted seven or eight seconds." 

This phenomenon was witnessed by the Cajjuchin missionary at San Fer- 
nando de Afiura, a village situated in lat. 7° 53 ' 12", amidst the savannahs cf the 
province of Varinas; by the Franciscan monks stationed near the cataracts of 
the Oronoco, and at Marca, on the banks of the Rio Negro, lat. 2° 40' long 
70° 21', and in the west of Brazil, as far as the equator itself; and also at the 
city of Porto Cabello, lat. 10'^ 6' 52", in French Guiana, Popayan, Quit-" ind 
Peru. It is somewhat surprising that the same appearances, obsersed in places 
BO widely separated, amid the vast and lonely deserts of Sc .th America, should 
have been seen, the same night, in the United States, in Labrador, in Greenland, 
and at Itterstadt, near Weimar, in Germany ! 

Recite instances of a similar kind, in lohicha red dust has been deposited Describe 
tlie phenomenon of shooting stars describeil by Mr. ElMcott, in 1799. Describe th^ 
$ame pheno7nenon as seen, in Smtth America, by Humboldt and others. In what oVier 
varts of the ^-arti was ii loitnessed, and by whomi 



PALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. 163 

We are told that thirty years before, at the city of Q,uito, 

There was seen in one part of the sky, above the volcano 
of Cayamburo, so great a number of falling stars, that the 
aiountain was thought to be in flames. This singular sight 
la-ted more than an hour. The people assembled in the 
plain of Exida, where a magnificent view presents itself of 
the highest summits of the Cordilleras. A procession was 
already on the point of setting out from the convent of St. 
Francis, when it was perceived that the blaze on the horizon 
was caused by fiery meteors, which ran along the sKy in all 
directions, at the altitude of 12 or 13 degrees." 

But the most sublime phenomenon of shooting stars, of 
which the world has furnished any record, was witnessed 
throughout the United States on the morning of the 13th of 
November, 1833. 

The entire extent of this astonishing exhibition has not 
been precisely ascertained, but it covered no inconsiderable 

fiortion of the earth's surface. It has been traced from the 
ongitude of 61°, in the Atlantic ocean, to longitude 100° in 
Central Mexico, and from the North American lakes to the 
West Indies. 

It was not seen, however, any where in Europe, nor in South America, ncr in 
any part of the Pacific ocean yet heard from. 

Every where, within the limits abovementioned, the first 
appearance was that of fireworks of the most imposing 
grandeur, covering the entire vault of heaven with myriads 
of fireballs, resembling skyrockets. Their corruscations 
were bright, gleaming and incessant, and they fell thick as 
the flakes in the early snows of December. To the splen- 
dours of this celestial exhibition, the most brilliant skyrockets 
and fireworks of art, bear less relation than the twinkling of 
the m.ost tiny star, to the broad glare of the sun. The whole 
heavens seemed in motion, and suggested to some the awful 
grandeur of the image employed in the apocalypse, upon 
the opening of the sixth seal, when "the stars of heaven 
fell unto the earth, even as a fig-tree casteth her untimely 
figs, when she is shaken of a mighty wind." 

One of the most remarkable circumstances attending this 
display was, that the meteors all seemed to emanate from oue 
and the same point, a little southeast of the zenith. Following 
the arch of the sky, they ran along with immense velocity, 

Describe another phenomenon of a similar kind, seen in South America about thirty 
years before. When occurred the most sublime phenomenon of shootins stars of 
•which the world has any record? How extensively was it witnessed? "What was 
the first appearance of the phenomenon? What scene in the apocalypse, did it sug- 
gest to some ? From what point did the meteors appear to emanate J Describe then 
motion. 



164 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. 

describing in some instances, an arc of 30° or 40° in a fet? 

seconds. 

On more attentive inspection it was seen, that the meteors 
exhibited three distinct varieties ; the first, consisting of 
•phosphoric lines, apparently described by a point ; the second, 
of large fireballs, that at intervals darted along the sky, leav- 
ing luminous trains, which occasionally remained in view foi- 
a number of minutes, and, in some cases, for half an hour or 
more ; the third, of undefined luminous bodies, which remain- 
ed nearly stationary in the heavens for a long time. 

Those of the first variety Avere the most numerous, and 
resembled a shower of fiery snow driven with inconceivable 
velocity to the north of west. The second kind appeared 
more like falliiig- stars — a spectacle which was contemplated 
by the more unenlightened beholders with great amazement 
and terrour. The trains which they left, were commonly 
white, but sometimes were tinged with various prismatic 
colours, of great beauty. 

These fireballs were occasionally of enormous size. Dr. 
Smith, of North Carolina, describes one which appeared larg- 
er than the full moon rising.* " I was," says he, "startled 
by the splendid light in which the surrounding scene was 
exhibited, rendering even small objects quite visible." The 
same ball, or a similar one, seen at New Haven, passed off in a 
northwest direction, and exploded a little northward of the 
star Capella, leaving, just behind th/e place of explosion, a 
train of peculiar beauty. The line of direction was at first 
nearly straight; but it soon began to contract in length, to 
dilate in breadth, and to assume the figure of a serjjent .scrol- 
ling itself up, until it appeared like a luminous cloud of va- 
pour, floating gracefully in the air, where it remained m full 
view for several minutes. 

Of the third variety of meteors, the following are remark- 
able examples: — At Poland, Ohio, a luminous body was dis- 
tinctly visible in the northeast for more than an hour. It Avas 
very brilliant, in the form of a pj'uning--hook.nnd apparently 
twenty feet long, and eighteen inches broad. It gradually 

* If this body were at the distance of UO miles, from the observer, It must have had 
« li.'imeter of one mile ; if at the dist;tnce of u miles, its diameter was 5» feet ; and 
If mdy one mile otT, it must have been 48 feel in diameter. These considerations 
leave no doubt, that many of the meteors were bodies of large size. 

What other appearances were observf^ upon mote attentive inspection? Give a 
more particular account of the first vunety. Of the serond. What do we know in 
regard to the size of these fireballs? How does Dr. Smith describe one seen by him 
in North Carolina? What was the appearmre of the same or a similar b;ill. as seen 
at New Haven? What was there peculiar in the course, and final disappearance of it? 
Suppose this meteor loas UO miles distant from 'he place qf ohservation, tchal 7nuft 
have been its diameter ? U'haC, if it were U Jtiiles distant ? UTiat, if only one nUe ? 
Mentioi some examples of the third variety of meteors 



FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS 1(5 

settled lowaras tne horizon, until it disappeared. At Niagara 
Falls, a large, luminous body, shaped like a square table, 
was seen near the zenith, remaining for some time almost 
stationary, emitting large streams of light. 

The point from which the meteors seemed to emanate, 
was observed by those who fixed its position among the stars, 
to be in the constellation Leo ; and, according to their concur- 
rent testimony, this radiant point was stationary among the 
stars, during the whole period of observation; that is, it did 
not move along with the earth, in its diurnal revolution east- 
ward, but accompanied the stars in their apparent progress 
westward. 

A remarkable change of weather from warm to cold, ac- 
companied the meteoric shower, or immediately followed it. 
In all parts of the United States, this change was remarkable 
for its suddenness and intensity. In many places, the day 
preceding had been unusually warm for the season, but, be- 
fore the next morning, a severe frost ensued, unparalleled, for 
the time of year. 

In attempting to explain these mysterious phenomena, it is 
argued, in the first place, that the meteors had their origin 
beyond the limits of our atmosphere ; that they of course 
did not belong to this earth, but to the regions of space exte- 
rior to it. 

The reason on which this conclusion is founded is this ; — All bodies near the 
earth, including the atmosphere itself, have a common motion with the earth 
around its axis from west to east ; but the radianl point, that indicated the 
source from which the meteors emanated, followed the course of the stars 
from east to west; therelbre. it was independent of the earth's rotation, and 
consequently, at a great distance from it. and beyond the limits of the atmos- 
phere. The height of the meteoric cloud, or radiant point, above the earth's 
surface was, according to the mean average of Professor Olmsted's observa- 
tions, not less than 22-38 miles. 

That the meteors were constituted of very light, combus- 
tible materials, seems to be evident, from their exhibiting the 
actual phenomena of combustion, they being consumed, or 
converted into smoke, with intense light; and the extreme 
tenuity of the substance composing them is inferred from the 
fact that they were stopped by the resistance of the air. Had 
their quantity of matter been considerable, with so prodigious 
a velocity, they would have had sufficient momentum to dash 
taem upon the earth ; where the most disastrous consequences 
might have followed. 

In what constellation was the point from which the meteors seemed to radiate 
What changes wave ous.-3n-ed in the weather during or soon after this phenomenon's 
In attemptmg to account for these phenomena, v/hat hypothesis has been advanced 
in regard to the place where the meteors had their origin? What is the reasoning by 
whicn this hypothesis is sustained? Hmo high teas the meteoric cloud supposed to be 
above the earth? What do wo know in regard to the substance of which the meteors 
were composed? %Vhat might have been the consequences, if their quantity of matter 
lad been considerable? "^ 



166 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. 

Tlie momentum of even light bodies of such size, and in sach numbers, tr»T 
ersing the atmosphere with such astonishing velocity, must have produced ex- 



♦.ensive deraugeuients in the atmospheric equihbriuin. Cold air from the unpei 
regions would be brought down to the earth; tiie nonions of air incumhcpf 
over districts of country remote from each other, being mutually disphci.-d, 



vvruld exchange places, the air of the warm latitudes be transferred to coldei, 
and that of cold latitudes, to warmer regions. 

Various hypotheses have been proposed to account for this 
wonderful phenomena. The agent which most readily suggests 
itself in this, and in many other unexplained natural appear- 
ances, is electricity. But no known properties of electricity- 
are adequate to account for the production of the meteors, for 
the motions, or for the trains which they, in many instances, 
left behind them. Others, again, have referred their proximate 
cause to magnetism^ and to 'phosphor etted hydrogen ; both 
of which, however, seem to be utterly insufficient, so far as 
their properties are known, to account for so unusual a phe- 
nomenon. 

Professor Olmsted, of Yale College, who has taken much 
pains to collec*^ facts, and to establish a permanent theory for 
the periodical recu./ence of such phenomena, came to the 
conclusion, that — 

The meteors of November 13th, 1833, emanated from a 
nebulous body, which was then pursuing its way along with 
the earth around the sun ; that this body continues to re- 
volve around the sun, in an elliptical orbit — but little in- 
clined to the plane of the ecliptic, and having its aphelion 
near the orbit of the earth; and finally^ that the body 
has a period of nearly six months, and that its perihelion 
is a little below the orbit of Mercury. 

This theory, at least accommouJites itself to the remarkable 
fact, that almost all the phenomena of this descripJon, which 
are known to have happened, have occurred in the two opposite 
months of April and November. A similar exhibition of 
meteors to that of November, 1833, was observed on the same 
day of the week, April 20th, 1803, at Richmond, in Virginia, 
Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and at Halifax, in Britisn Amer- 
ica. Another was witnessed in the autumn of 1818, in the 
North sea, when, in the language of the observers, " all the 
surrounding atmosphere was enveloped in one expansive sea 
of fire, exhibiting the appearance of another Moscow in 
flames." 

Exactly one year previous to the great phenomenon of 
1833, namely, on the 12th of November, 1832, a similar me- 

\Vhat effect must the momentum of even light bodies of such size,moving with such 
velocity, have liad upon the atmosphere! Mention some hypotheses which have been 
proposed to account for these meteors. To what conclusion did Professor 01mst«d, 
after a long investigation, come, in regard to them? To what remarkable facts In 
such phenomena, is this theory adapted? At what other corresponding periods hav» 
similar chenoniena been observed? 



FALLING, OR SHOOTING STARS. 167 

iporic display was seen near 7V/ocAa, on the Bed sea, hy 
Capt. Hammond and crew, of the ship Restitution. 

A upiitleman in South Carolina, thus describes the effect of the phenomenon 
of [>>3. upon his ignorant blacks: — "'I was suddenly awakened by the most 
distressing cries that ev^r fell on ray ears. Shrieks of horrour, and cries of 
mercy, I could hear from most of the negroes of three })lantations, amount- 
ing in all to about six ur eight hundi'ed. While earnestly listemng for the 
cause, I 1 eard a faint voic-.e near the door calling my name; I arose, ?.nd 
taking my sword, stood at the door. At this moment, I heard the same voice 
still beseeching me to rise, and saying. 'O! my God, the world is on fire!' 
I then opened the door, and it is difficult to say which excited me most — the 
awfnlnes.s of the scene, or the distressed crie.s of the negroes ; upwards of 
one hundred lay prostrate on the ground — some speechless, and some with 
the bitterest cries, but most with their hands raised, imploring God to save 
the world and them. The scene was truly awful ; for never did rain fall umch 
thicker, than the meteors feP towards the earth ; east, west, north, and south, 
it was the same !" 



Since the preceding went to prsss, the Author has been po- 
litely furnished^ hy Professor Olmsted, with the accom- 
■panying communication. 

" I am happy to hear that you propose to stereotype 
your ' Geography of the Heavens.' It has done much, I 
believe, to diffuse a popular knowledge of astronomy, and 
I am pleased that your efforts are rewarded by an ex- 
tended patronage. 

"Were I now to express my views on the subject {Me- 
teoric Showers) in as condensed a form as possible, I should 
state them in some such terms as the following : The mete- 
oric showers which have occurred for several years past on 
or about the 13th of November, are characterized by fouT 
peculiarities, which distinguished them from ordinary 
shooting stars. First, they are far more numerous than 
common, and are larger and brighter. Secondly, they are 
in much greater proportion than usual, accompanied by 
luminous trains. Thirdly, they mostly appear to radiate 
from a common centre,— that is, were their paths in the 
heavens traced backwards, they would meet in the same 
part of the heavens: this point has for three years past, 
at least, been situated in the constellation Leo. Fourthly, 
the greatest display is every where at, nearly the same 
time of night, namely, from three to four o'clock— a time 



168 FALLING, OR SHOOTING STAIJS. 

about half way from midnight to sunrise. The meteorS 
are inferred to consist o( coynbustible matter, because they 
are seen to take fire and burn in the atmosphere. They 
are known to be very light, because, although they fall 
towards the earth with immense velocity, few, if any, ever 
reach the earth, but are arrested by the air, like a wad 
fired from a piece of artillery. Some of them are inferred 
to be bodies of comparatively great size, amounting in di- 
ameter to several hundred feet, at least, because they are 
seen under so large an angle, while they are at a great dis- 
tance from the spectator. Innumerable small bodies thus, 
consisting of extremely light, thin, combustible matter, 
existing together in space far beyond the limits of the at- 
mosphere, are believed to compose a body of immense 
extent, which has been called ' the nebulour body.' Only 
the skirts or extreme portions of this are brought down to 
the earth, while the entire extent occupies many thousand, 
and perhaps several millions of miles. This nebulous body 
is inferred to have a revolution around the sun, as well as 
the earth, and to come very near to the latter about the 
13th of November each year. This annual meeting every 
year, for several years in succession, could not take place 
unless the periodic time of the nebulous body is either 
nearly a year, or half a year. Various reasons have in- 
duced the belief that half a year is the true period ; but 
this point is considered as somewhat doubtful. The zodi- 
acal light, a faint light that appears at different seasons of 
ihe year, either immediately preceding the morning or 
following the evening twilight, ascending from the sun in 
a triangular form, is with some degree of probability 
thought to be the nebulour body itself, although the exist- 
ence of such a body, revolving in the solar system, was 
inferred to be the cause of the meteoric showers, before 
any connexion of it with the zodiacal light was evey 
thought of." 



GENERAL PHENOMENA OF THE SOLAR SY3TEM. 169 



GENERAL PHENOMENA 



SOLAR SYSTEM. 



CHAPTER XVITI. 

Our attention has hitherto been directed to those bodies 
which we see scattered every where throughout the whole 
celestial concave. These bodies, as has been shown, twinkle 
with a reddish and variable light, and appear to have always 
the same position with regard to each other. We know 
hat their number is very great, and that their distance 
from us is immeasurable. We are also acquainted with 
their comparative brightness and their situation. In a 
word, we have before us their few visible appearances, to 
which our knowledge of them is well nigh limited ; al- 
most all our reasonings in regard to them being founded 
on comparatively few and uncertain analogies. Accord- 
ingly our chief t>usines3, thns far, has been to detail their 
number, to desi-ribe their brightness and positions, and to 
give the names by which they have been designated. 

There now remain to be considered certain other ce- 
lestial bodies, all of which, from their remarkable appear- 
ance and changes, and some of them from their intimate 
connection with the comfort, convenience, and even ex- 
istence of man, must have always attracted especial ob 
servation, and been objects of the most intense contemplation 
and the deepest interest. Most of these bodies are situ- 
ated within the limits of the Zodiac. The most important 
of them are, the Sun, so superior to all the heavenly bodies 
for its apparent magnitude, for the light and heat which 
it imparts, for the marked effects of its changes of position 
with regard to the Earth ; and the Moon, so conspicuoas 
dir^GZL" *h^ v>nflips which srive lia:ht by night, and from 
her soft ana silvery brightness, so pleasing to t)enolcl ; re- 

To svhat particulars is our knowledge of the fixed stars, those heavenly bodies which 
we have heretofore been consiJerir.s, well nigh confined ? AVhere are the bodies wlucb 
now remain to be considc-ed, situated? Which of them are the naost important? 
15 



170 GENERAL PHENOMENA 

markable not oi ly for changes of position , but for ihe 
varied pliases or appearances which she presents, a? she 
waxes from ner crescent form through all her diffeient 
''tages of increase to a full orb, and wanes back again to 
her former diminished figure. 

The partial or total obscuration of these two bodies, which 
sometimes occnirs, darkness taking place even at mid-day, 
and the face of night, before lighted up by the Moon's beams, 
being suddenly shaded by their absence, have always been 
among the most striking astronomical phenomena, and so 
powerful in their influence upon the beholders, as to fill them 
with perplexity and fear. If we observe these two bodies, 
we shall find, that, besides their apparent diurnal motion 
Rcross the heavens, they exhibit other phenomena, which 
must be the effect of motion. The Sun during one part of 
the year, will be seen to rise every day farther and farther 
towards the north, to continue longer and longer above 
the horizon, to be more and more elevated at mid-day, 
until he arrives at a certain limit; and then, during the other 
part, the order is entirely reversed. The Moon sometimes is 
not seen at all ; and then, when she first becomes visible, 
appears in the west, not far from the setting Sun, with a slen- 
der crescent form ; every night she appears at a greater 
distance from the setting Sun, increasing in size, until at 
length she is found in the east, just as the Sun is sinkmg 
below the horizon in the west. 

The Sun, if his motions be attentively observed, will be 
found to have another motion, opposite to his apparent diurnal 
motion from east to west. This may be perceived distinct- 
ly, if we notice, on any clear evening, any bright star, which 
is first visible after sunset, near the place where he sunk 
below the horizon. The following evening, the star will 
not be visible on account of the approach of the Sun, and all 
the stars on the east of it Vv?i!l be successively eclipsed by 
his rays, until he shall have made a complete apparent revo- 
lution in the heavens. These are the most obvious pheno- 
mena exhibited by these two bodies. 

There are, also, situated within the limits of the Zodiac, 
certain other bodies, which, at first view, and on a superficial 
examination, are scarcely distinguishable from the fixed 
stars. But observed more attentively, they will be seen 'to 
shine with a milder and steadier light, and besides being 
carried round with the stars, in the apparent revolution of 
the great celestial concave, they will seem to change their 

Describe the most ob\nous phenomena of the Sun and INIoon. 2)escribe the most obvioui 
. phenomena of the planets. 



OP THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 171 

|n:\ces m the concave itself. Sometimes they are station- 
arv ; sometimes thev appear to be moving from west to east, 
and sometimes to be going back again from east to west ; 
being seen at sunset sometimes in the east, and sometimes 
in the west, and always apparently changing their position 
with regard to the earth, each other, and the other heaven- 
ly bodies. From their wandering as it were, in this man- 
ner, thr-.'Ugh the heavens, they were called by the Greeks 
n^avrirji, planets, which signifies wanderers. 

There also sometimes appear in the heavens, bodies of a 
very extraordinary aspect, which continue visible for a con- 
siderable period, and then disappear from our view; and noth- 
ing more is seen of them, it may be for years, when they 
again present themselves, and take their place among the 
oodies of the celestial spliere. They are distinguished from 
the planets by a dull and cloudy appearance, and by a train 
of light. As they approach the sun, however, their faint and 
nebulous light becomes more and more brilliant, and their 
train increases in length, until they arrive at their nearest 
point of approximation, when they shine with their greatest 
brilliancy. As they recede from the Sun, they gradually 
lose their splendour, resume their faint and nebulous appear- 
ance, and their train diminishes, until they entirely disap- 
pear. They have no well defined figure ; they seem to move 
in every possible direction, and are found in every part of 
the heavens. From their train, they were called by the 
Greeks KO[XTiTai, comets, which signifies having long hair. 

The causes of these various phenomena must have early 
constituted a verv natural subject of inquiry. Accordingly, 
we shall find, if we examine the history of the science, that 
in very early times there were many speculations upon 
this subject, and that diflerent theories were adopted to ac- 
count for these celestial appearances. 

The Egyptians, Chaldeaas, Indians, and Chinese, early possessed many astro> 
nouiical facts, many observations of impoilant phenomena, and many rules 
and methods of astronomical calculation; and it has be-en imagined, that they 
haJ tiie ruins of a great system of astronomical science, which, in tho earliest 
ages of the world, nad been carried to a great degree of perfection, and that 
while the principles and explanations of the phenomena were lost, the isolated, 
unconnected facts, rules of calculation, and pnenomena themselves, remain^ 
ed. Thus, the Chinese, who, it is generally agreed, possess the oldest authen- 
tic observations on record, have recorded in their annals, a conjunction of 
five planets at the same time, which happened 2461 years before Christ, or 100 
years before the flood. By mathematical calculation, it is ascertained that this 
conjunction really occurred at that time. The first observation of a solar 
eclipse of which the world has any knowledge, was made by the Chinese, 2123 
years before Christ, or 220 years after the deluge. It seems, also, that the 
Chinese understood the method of calculating eclipses; for, it is said, that the 

Whence do they derive their name? Describe the comets. Whence is their name 
derived ? What oriental nations eariy possessed riany important astronomical fact$ 
observations, and rules? Whence ia it supposed that ihey obtained the^n ? 



172 GENERAL PHENOMENA 

empero; was so irritated against the great officers of stare for neglecting: to pre- 
dict the nclipeie, tnar, he caused them to be put to death.* The astronomical 
epoch ci the Chinese, according to Bailly, commenced with Fohi, their first 
emperor, who tiourished 2952 years before the Christian era, or about .'ioO 
yi^iiis before the deluge. It it be asked how the knowledge of this antediiu- 
vian astronomy was preserved and transmitted, it is said that the columns or 
vvliich it was registered have survived tiie deluge, and that tliose of Egyjjt are 
only copies which have become originals, now that the others have been for- 
^otien. Tile liidians. also, profess to have many celestial observations of a 
very early date. The Chaldeans have been justly celebrated in all ages for 
tiieir astronomical observations. When Alexander took Babylon, his precep- 
tor. Callisthenes, found a series of Chaldean observations, made in that city, 
and extending back with Uttle interruption, through a period of 1903 years pre- 
ceding that event. This would carry us back to at least 2234 years before the 
birth of Christ, or to about the time of the dispersion of mankind by the con- 
fusion of tongues. Though it be conceded, tliat upon this whole period in the 
history of the science, the obscurity of very remote antiquity must necessari- 
ly rest, still it will remain evident ttiat the phenomena ofthe heavenly bodies 
had been obsei'ved with great attention, and had been a subject of no ordinary 
interest. 

But however numerous or important were the observations of oriental an- 
ticpiity, they were never reduced to the shape and symmetry of a regular 
system. 

The Greeks, in all probability, derived many notions in regard to this scl 
ence, and many facts and observations, from Egypt, the great fountain if an- 
cient learning and wisdom, and mriiiy were the speculations and hypotheses 
of their philosophers. In the fabulous period of Grecian history, Atlas. Her- 
cules, Linus, and Orpheus, are mentioned as persons distinguished for their' 
knowledge of astronomy, and for the improvements which they made in the 
science. But in regard to this period, little is known with certainty, and it 
must be considered, as it is termed, fabulous. 

The first ofthe Greek philosophers who taught Astrono 
my, was Thales, of Miletus. He flourished about 64C 
years before the Christian era. Then followed Anaximan- 
der, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Plato. — Some 
of The doctrines maintained by these philosophers were, that 
the Earth was round, that it had two motions, a diurnal mo- 
tion on its axis, and an annual motion around the Sun. that 
the Sun was a globe of fire, that the Moon received her light 
fro^m the Sun, that she was habitable, contained mountains 
seas, &c. ; that her eclipses were caused by the Earth's 
shadow, tiiatthe planets were not designed merely to adorn 
cur heavens, that they were worlds of themselves, and tha» 
the fixed stars were centres of distant systems. Some of 
them, however, maintained, that the Earth was flat, and 
others, that though round, it was at rest in the centre ofthe 
universe. 

When that distinguished school of philosophy was estab- 
lished at Alexandria, in Egypt, by the munificence of the 

* It is well known that the Chinese have, from time immemorial, considered Solar 
Ec.'ipses and Conjunctions of the planets, as prognostics of importance to the Empire, and 
itat they have been predicted as a matter of State po'icy. 

Give so7ne instances. Were these facts, however, reduced to a science ? Whence, 
Is it probable, that the Greeks derived their first notions of astronomy J What is the 
name of the first of the Greek philosophers who taught astronomy ? At what time did 
he flourish? What Greek philosophers after him taught upcn the same subject ? Men- 
lion some of the doctrines which they maintained. 



OF IHE SOLAS SYSTEM. 173 

sovereigns to whom that portion of Alexander's empire had 
lallen, astronomy received a new impulse. It was now, m 
the second century after Christ, that the first complete sys- 
tem or treatise ot astronomy, of which we have any know- 
ledge, was formed. All before had been unconnected and 
. incomplete. Ptolemy, wdth the opinions of all antiquity, 
and of all the philosophers who had preceded him, spread 
out before him, composed a work in thirteen books, called 
the MfyaXrj Lvvra^ig. 01 Great System. Rejecting the doc- 
trine of Pythagoras, who taught that the Sun was the centre 
of the. universe, and that the Earth had a diurnal motion on 
its axis and an annual motion around the Sun, as contrary 
lO the evidence of the senses. Ptolemy endeavoured to ac- 
count for the celestial phenomena, by supposing the Earth 
to be the centre of the universe, and all the heavenly bodies 
to revolve around it. He seems to have entertained an idea 
in regard to the supposition, that the Earth revolved on its 
axis, similar to one which some entertain even at the pre- 
sent day. "If," says he, "there were any motion of the 
Earth common to it and all other heavenly bodies, it would 
certainly precede them all by the excess of its mass being 
so great ; and animals and a certain portion of heavy bodies 
would be left behind, riding upon the air, and the Earth 
itself would very soon be completely carried out of the 
heavens." 

In explaining the cele.stial phenomena, however, upon his hypothesis, he 
met with a difficulty in the apparently stationary attitude and retrograde mo- 
tions which he saw the planets sometimes have. To explain this, however, 
he supposed the planets to revolve in small circles which he called epi- 
cycles, which were, at the same time, carried around the Earth in larger 
circles, which he called deferents, or carrying circles. In followmg out hia 
theory and applying it to the explanation of ditferent phenomena, it became 
necessai-y to add new epicycles, and to have recourse to other expedients, 
until the system becanie unwieldy, cumbrous, and complicated. This 
theory, although astronomical observations continued to be made, and some 
distinguished "astronomers appeared ft-om time to time, was the prevailing 
theory until the middle of the 15th century. It was not, however, always 
received wich implicit confidence ; nor were its difficulties always entii-el/ 
unappreciated. 

Alphonso X., king of Castile, who flourished in the 13th century, when 
contemplating the doctrine of the epicycles, exclaimed, "Were the universe 
thus constructed, if the deity had called me to his councils at the creation 
of the world, I could .kave given him good advice.'' He did not, however, 
mean any impiety or irreverence, except what was dire ted against the system 
of Ptolemy'. 

About the middle of the 15th century, Copernicus, a 
natiye of Thorn in Prussia, conceiving a passionate attach- 
ment to the study of astronomy, quitted the profession of 

When was the first complete system of Astronomj' written, and by whom ? Ij how 
many boqlcs was it comprised, and wiiat was the work called ? ^\■hat was the 
system of Ptolemy? How did Ptolemy explain the stations and retroi,'radationa 
of the planexs ? Hoio long loas the system of Ptolemy the prevailing system ? Was 
it always received with implicit confidence i Who established a new System ctf 
Ajstronomy about the middle of the !5th"centurv? 

15* 



k74 general phenomena 

medicine, and devoted himself, with the most intense ardour. 
to ihe study of this science. "His mind," it is said, "uaJ 
loriir been imbued with the idea that simjilicity and harmony 
should characterize the arrangements of the planetary sy-' • 
tetn. In the complication and disorder which, he saw, 
reigned in the hypothesis of Ptolemy, he perceived insuper- 
able objections to its being considered as a representation of 
nature." 

In the opinions of the Egyptian sages, in those of Pytha- 
goras, Philolaus, Aristarchus and Nicetas, he recognised his 
own earliest conviction that the Earth was not the centre of 
the universe. His attention was much occupied with the 
speculation of Martinus Capella, who placed the Sun be- 
tween Mars and the Moon, and made Mercury and Venus 
revolve around him as a centre, and with the system of Ap- 
poUonius Pergoeus. who made all the planets revolve around 
the Sun, while the Sun and Moon were carried around the 
Earth in the centre of the universe. 

The examination, however, of these hypotheses, gradual- 
ly expelled the difficulties with which the subject was beset, 
and after the labour of more than thirty years, he was per- 
mitted to see the true system of the universe. The Sun he 
considered as immoveable, in the centre of the system, 
while the earth revolved around him. between the orbits of 
Venus and Mars, and produced by its rotation about its axis 
all the diurnal phenomena of the celestial sphere. The 
other planets he considered as revolving about the Sun, in 
orbits exterior to that of the Earth. {See the Relative Po- 
sition of the Planets' Orbits. Plate I. of the Atlas.) 

Thus, the stations and retrogradations of the planets were 
the necessary consequence of their own motions, combin- 
ed with that of the Earth about the Sun. He said that 
" by long observation, he discovered, that if the motions 
of the planets be compared with that of the Earth, and be esti- 
mated according to the times in which they perform their 
revolutions, not only their several appearances would fol- 
low from this hypothesis, but that it would so connect the 
order of the planets, their orbits, magnitudes, and distances, 
and even the apparent motion of the iixed stars, that it would 
be impossible to remove one of these bodies out of its place 
without disordering the rest, and even the whole of the uni- 
verse also." 

Scun after the death of Copernicus, arose Tycho Brahe, 



aminatkm of Jifferent hypotheses before he came to a satisfactory result . . 

the systom of Copernicus ? Wluit distinguished astronomer, soon hS\ei the time of Co- 
pernicus, enriclied astronomy with many valuabl<> observations ? 



OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 175 

Dorn at Knudstorp, in Norway, in 1546. Such was the 
distinction which he had attained as an astronomer, that 
when dissatisfied with his residence in Denmark, he had re- 
solved to remove, the king of Denmark, learning his inten- 
tions, detained him in the kingdom, by presenting him with 
the canonry of Rothschild, with an income of 2000 crowns 
per annum. He added to this sum a pension of 1000 crowns, 
gave him the island of Huen, and established for him an ob 
servatory at an expense of about 200,000 crowns. Here 
Tycho continued, for twenty-one years, to enrich astronomy 
with his observations. His observations upon the Moon 
were important, and upon the planets, numerous and precise, 
and have formed the data of the present generalizations in 
astronomy. He, however, rejected the system of Coperni- 
cus ; considering the Earth as immoveable in the centre of 
the system, while the Sun, with all the planets and comets 
revolving around him, performed his revolution around the 
earth, and, in the course of twenty-four hours, the stars also 
revolved about the central body. This theory was not as 
simple as that of Copernicus, and involved the absurdity of 
makmg the Sun, planets, &c. revolve around a body com- 
paratively insignificant. 

Near the close of the 15th century, arose two men, who 
wrought most important changes in the science, Kepler, 
and Galileo, the former a German, the latter an Italian. 

Previous to Kepler, all investigations proceeded upon the 
supposition that the planets moved in circular orbits, which 
had been a source of much error. This supposition Kepler 
showed to. be false. He discovered that their orbits were 
ellipses. The orbits of their secondaries or moons he also 
found to be the same curve. He next determined the di- 
mensions of the orbits of the planets, and found to what 
their velocities in their motions through their orbits, and the 
times of their revolutions, were proportioned; all truths of 
the greatest importance to the science. 

While Kepler was making these discoveries of facts, very 
essential for the explanation of many phenomena, Galileo 
was discovering wonders in the heavens never before seen 
by the eye of man. Having improved the telescope, and 
applied it to the heavens, he observed mountains and valleys 
upon the surface of our Moon ; satellites or secondaries 

What inducements did the king of Denmark offer him to remain in the kingdom ? How 
Jong did he continue to make observations in his observatory in the island or Huen? How 
were the heavenly bodies arranged, in his system ? What absurdity did it involve ? What 
two illustrious astronomers made several very important discoveries soon after the time 
of Tycho Brahe? What were the discoveries of Kepler? What were the discoveries of 
Gaiaeo ? 



176 GENERAL PHENOMENA 

were discovered revolving about Jupiter ; and Venus, as 
Copernicus had predicted, was seen exhibiting all the differ- 
ent phases of the Moon, waxing and waning as she does, 
through various forms. Many minute stars, not visible to 
the naked eye, were descried in the milky-way ; and the 
largest fixed stars, instead of being magnified, appeared to 
be small brilliant points, an incontroveruble argument in fa- 
vour of their immense distance from us. All his discoveries 
served to confirm the Copernican theory, and to show the 
absurdity of the hypothesis of Ptolemy. 

Although the general arrangement and motions of the 
planetary bodies, together with the figure of their orbits, 
had been thus determined, the force or power which car- 
ries them around in their orbits, was as yet unknown. 
The discovery of this was reserved for the illustrious New- 
ton.* By reflecting on the nature of gravity — that power 
which causes bodies to descend towards the centre of the 
earth — since it does not sensibly diminish at the greatest dis- 
lance from the centre of the earth to which we can attain, be- 
mg as powerful on the loftiest mountains as it is in the deep- 
est caverns, he was led to imagine that it might extend to the 
Moon, and that it might be the power v/hich kept her in her 
orbit, and caused her to revolve around the Earth. He was 
next led to suppose that perhaps the same power carried the 
primary planets around the Sun. By a series of calculations, 
he was enabled at length to establish the fact, that the same 
force which determines the fill of an apple to the Earth, car- 
ries the moons in their orbits around the planets, and the 
planets and comets in their orbits around the Sun. 

To recapitulate briefly : the system, (not hypothesis, for 
much of it has been established by mathematical demonstra- 
tion,) by which we are now enabled to explain with a beauti- 
ful simplicity the diff'erent phenomena of the Sun, planets, 
moons, and comets, is, that the Sun is the central body in 
the system ; that the planets and comets move round him in 
elliptical orbits, whose planes are more or less inclined to 
each other, with velocities bearing to each otherf a cer- 
tain ascertained relation, and in times related to their dis> 
tances ; that the moons, or secondaries, revolve in like man- 
ner, about their primaries, and at the same lime accompany 

* The discovery of Newton was in some measure anticipated by Copernicus, Keplei 
and Hooke. 

* The orbits or paths of the planets were discovered by tracing the course of the planet 
by ir oans of the fixed stars. 

What was the discovery of Newton ? How was he led to make it ? Recapitulat* 
Driefly tlie system by wliich we are enabled to explain the different celesli«l phenumeoa. 



0¥ THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 1T7 

them in their motion around the Sun ; all meanwhile revol- 
ving on axes of their own ; and that these revolutions in their 
orbits, are produced by the mysterious power of attraction,. 
The particular mode in which this system is applied to the 
explanation of the different phenomena, will be exhibitca 
as we proceed to consider, one by one, the several bodies 
above mentioned. 

These bodies, thus arranged and thus revolving, consti 
tute what is termed the solar system. The planets have 
been divided into two classes, primaries and secondaries. 
The latter are also termed moons, and sometimes satellites. 
The primaries are those which revolve about the Sun, as 
a centre. The secondaries are those which revolve about 
the primaries. There have been discovered eleven prima- 
ries ; namely. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Vesta, 
Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel ; of which, 
Mercury is the nearest to the Sun, and the others follow, 
in the order in which they are named. Vesta, Juno, Ceres, 
and Pallas, were discovered by means of the telescope, and, 
because they are very small, compared with the others, are 
called asteroids. There have been discovered, eighteen 
secondaries. Of these, the Earth has one, Jupiter four, 
Saturn seven, and Herschel six. All these, except our 
Moon, as well as the asteroids, are invisible to the naked 
eye. 

Plate 1, of the Atlaj?, " exhibits a plan of the Solar System," comprising the 
relative magnitudes of the Sun and Planets ; their coniparative distances from 
the Sun, and from each other ; the position of their orbits, with respect to 
each other, the Earth, and the Sun ; together with many other particulars 
which are explained on the map. There, the first and most prominent object 
which claims attention, is the representation of the Sun's circumference, with 
its deep radiarions, bounding the upper margin of the map. It is apparent, 
however, that this segment is hardly one sixth of the whole circumference of 
which it is a part. Were the map sufficiently large to admit the entire orb 
of the Sun,' even upon so diminutive a scale as there represented, we should 
then see the Sun and Planets in their just proportions — the diameter of the 
former being 112 times the diameter of "the Earth. 

It was intended, originally, to represent the Earth upon a scale of ons inch 
in diameter, and the other bodies in that proportion ; but it was found that it 
would increase the map to 4 times its size ; and hence it became necessary to 
assume a scale of half a^n inch for the Earth's diameter, which makes that of 
the Sun 56 inches, and the other bodies, as represented upon the map. 

The relative position of the Planets' Orbits is also represented, on a scale 
as large as the sheet would permit. Tiieir relative distances from the Sun as' a 
centre, and from each other, are there shown correctly : But had we wished 
to enlarge the dimensions of these orbits, so that they would exactly corres- 

Eond with the scale to which we have drawn the planets, the map must have 
een nearly 4 miles in length. Hence, says Sir John Herschel, "the idea that 

What is meant by the Solar System ? Into what two classes have the planets been di 
rided ? Define a primary planet. Define a secondary planet. How many primary plan 
ets have been discovered ? What are their names, and what the order of their distance 
from the sun? Which of them were discovered by means of the telescope? Why are 
these termed asteroids? How many secondaries have been discovered ? How are they 
distrilaited among the primaries i Which of the primaries and secondaries are invisible 
to fw naked eve ? 



178 THE SUN. 

we can convey correct notions on this s>ibject, by drawiiig circles on p^i-'rr 
is out of ilie question." 

To iifustrate this. — Let us suppose ourselves standing on an extended pian^*, 
or field of ice, and that a globe 4 fott S ijichcs in diameter is placed in tl^e 
centre of the plane, to represent the Sun. Having cut out of the map, me 
dark circles repre.senting the planets, we may proceed to arrange them in 
their respective orbits, about the Sun, as follows : 

First, we should take Mercury, about the size of a small currant, and place 
it on the circuuifcrence of a circle 194 feet from the Sun ; this circle would 
represent tiie orbit of Mercury, in the proper ratio of its' ineu^nitude. Next, 
we should take Venus, about the size of a rather ?»iiaH cherry, and place it on 
a circle 362 feet from the Sun-, to represent the orbit of Venus: Then would 
come the Eailh, about the size of a clterry, revolving in an oi-bit500 feet from 
the Sun : — After the Earth, we .'ihould place IMars, about the size of a cranber- 
ry, on a circle 762 feet from the Sun : — Neglecting tlie Asteroids, some of which 
would KOl be larger than a pin's head, we should place Jupiter, hardly equal 
to a moderate sized melon, on a circle at the distance of hah a mile (26()l leet) 
from the Sun ;— Saturn, somewhat less, on a cirle nearly a mile (47G9 feef > 
from the Sun ; and last of all, we should place Ilerschel, about the size of a 
peach, on the circumference of a circle nearly 2 miles (9591 feet) from tlie 
Sun. 

To imitate the niofions of the planets, in the abovementioned orbits, Mercu- 
ry must describe its own diamofer in 41 seconds; Venus, in 4 mi»utes 14 
seconds; the Earth, in 7 minutes: Mars, in 4 minutes 48 seconds ; Jupiter, 
in 2 hours 58 minutes ; Saturn, in 3 hours 13 minutes ; and Herschel, in 2 hours 
16 minutes. 

Many other interesting subjects are embraced in Plate 1 ; but they are 
eitlier explained on the map, or in the tallowing Chapters, to which they rea- 
pectively relate. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

THE SUN. 

The sun is a vast globe, in the cectre of the solar system, 
dispensing light and heat to ail the planets, and govern- 
ing all their motions. 

It is the great parent of vegetable life, giving warmth to 
the seasons, and colour to the landscape. Its rays are the 
cause of various vicissitudes on the surface of the earth and 
in the atmosphere. By their agency, all winds are pro- 
duced, and the waters of the sea are made to circulate in 
vapour through the air, and irrigate the land, producing 
springs and rivers. 

The Sun is by far the largest of the heavenly bodies 
whose dimensions have been ascertained. Its diameter is 
something more than 887 thousand miles. Consequently, it 
contains a volume of matter equal to fourteen hundred thou- 
sand globes of the size of the Earth. Of a body so vast in 
its dimensions, the human mind, with all its efforts, can 

Mention some of the effects proiluneti by the Sun. "What is its mnfmitude comnared 
with that of tiio other hraveniy Uidirs wliose dimonsion,* have been estimated 7 What i* 
tji diajDeter 1 ilow much larger is tin; Siin tlmn tho Earth? 



THE SUN. 179 

form no adequate conception. The whole distance between 
the Earth and the Moon would not suffice to embrace one 
third of its diameter. 

If ere ler the student refer to Plate I. where the Relative Magnitudes of the 
Sun and Planets are exhibited. Let him compare the segment of the Sun's 
c'rcumference, as there represented, with the entire circumference of the 
Earth. They are both drawn upon the same scale. The segment of the Sun's 
circumference, since it is almost a straigiit One, must be a very small part of 
wliat the whole circumference would be, were it represented entire. Let the 
student understand this diagram, and he will be in some measure able to con- 
ceive how like a mere point the Earth is, compared with the Sun, and to form 
in his miud some image of the vast magnitude of the latter. 

Were the Sun a hollow sphere, perforated with a thousand 
openings to admit the twinkling of the luminous atmosphere 
around it — and were a globe as large as the Earth placed 
at its centre, with a satellite as large as our Moon, and at 
the same distance from it as she is from the earth, there 
would be present to the eye of a spectator on the interior globe, 
a universe as splendid as that Avhich now appears to theun- 
instructed eye — a universe as large and extensive as the 
whole creation was conceived to be, in the infancy of astron- 
omy. 

The next thing which fills the mind with wonder, is the 
distance at which so great a body must be placed, to occupy, 
apparently, so small a space in the firmament. The Sun's 
mean distance from the Earth, is twelve thousand times the 
Earth's diameter, or a little more than 95 millions of miles. 
We may derive some faint conception of such a distance, 
by considering that the swiftest steamboats, which ply our 
waters at the rate of 200 miles a day, would not traverse it 
m thirteen hundred years', and, that a cannon ball, flying 
night and day, at the rate of 16 miles a minute, would not 
ceach it in eleven years. 

The Sun, when viewed through a telescope, presents ilm 
appearance of an enormous gh>be of fire, frequently in a 
state of violent agitation or ebullition; dark spots of irregu- 
lar form, rarely visible to the naked eye, sometimes pass 
over his disc, from east to west, in the period of nearly 
fourteen days. 

These spots are usually surrounded by a penumbra, and 
that, by a margin of light, more brilliant than that of the 
Sun. A spot when first seen on the eastern edge of the 
Sun, appears like a line which progressively extends in 
breadth, till it reaches the middle, when it begins to contract. 

What is the whole distance between the Earth and the Moon, compared with the di- 
ameter of the Sun? Give .some illustration to enable us to conceive of the magnitude of 
the Sun. What is the distanre of the Sun from the Earth ? Give some illiut ration to en- 
able us to conceive of the distance What is the appearance of the Sun Then viewed 
throueli a telescope ? In what time 'io tlie spots seen on the Sun pass across the disc 
«i what direction do they move ? D^if ^ribe their a 



l80 THE SUW. 

and ultimately disappears, at the western edge. In somv 
rare instances, the same spots re appear on the east side, 
and are permanent for two or three revolutions. But, a? 
a general thing, the spots on the Sun are neither permanent 
nor uniform Sometimes several small ones unite into » 
large one ; and, again, a large one separates into numer 
ous small ones. Some continue several days, weeks, and 
even months, together; while others appear and disappear 
in the course of a few hours. Those spots tnat are formed 
gradually,- are, for the most part, as gradually dissolved • 
whilst those that are suddenly formed, generally vanish aa 
quickly. 

It is the general opinion, that spots on the Sun were 
first discovered by Galileo, in the beginning of the year 
1611 ; though Scheiner, Harriot, and Fabricius, observed 
them about the same time. During a period of 18 years 
from this time, the Sun was never found entirely clear of 
spots, excepting a few days in December, 1624 ; at other 
times, there were frequently seen, twenty or thirty at a 
time, and in 1625, upwards of fifty were seen at once. 
From 1650, to 1670, scarcely any spots were to be seen j 
and, from 1676, to 1684, the orb of the Sun presented an un- 
spotted disc. Since the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, scarcely a year has passed, in which spots have not 
been visible, and frequently in great numbers. In 1799, 
Dr. Herschel observed one nearly 30,000 miles in breadth. 

A single second of angular measure, on the Sun's disc, as seen from the 
earth, corresponds to 462 miles; and a circle of this diameter (containing there- 
fore nearly 220,000 square miles) is the least space which can be distinctly dis- 
cerned on the Sun as a visible area, even by the most powerful gksses. Spoia 
have been observed, however, whose linear diameter has been more than 
43,000 miles ; and, if some records are to be trusted, of even still greater 
extent. 

Dr. Dick, in a letter to the author, says, "I have for many years examined 
the solar spots with considerable minuteness, and have several times seen 
spots which were not less than the one twenty-filth part of the Sun's diameter, 
which would make them about 22,192 miles in diameter, yet they were visible 
neither to the naked eye. nor through an opera glass, magnitying about three 
times. And, therefore, if any spots have been visible to the naked eye — which 
we must believe, unless we refuse respectable testimony — they could not 
have been much less than 50,000 miles in diameter." 

The apparent motion of these spots over the Sun's sur- 
face, is continually varying in its direction. Sometimes 
they seem to move across it in straight lines, at others in 
curve lines. These phenomena may be familiarly illustra- 
ted in the following manner. 

Do the same spots ever reappear on the ea.«t side ? Are the spots generally permaDent 
tnd utiiform ? Descrii)e their irrpjrularities ? Wjio, is it Kenurally supposed, first discover- 
^ spo'ij on the Sun ? Who else observed them al>out the same time ?^ What v 

•adth of the one seen ■ " 

•taopearto move) 




Le* E E represent the ecliptic ; A^-S", its north ana soprh poles, 3f the point 
<rhere the spot enters, and m the point where it leave? tne Snn's disc. At the 
end of November, and the beginning of December, tne spot will appear to 
move downwards, across the Sun's disc, from left to right, describing the 
straight lines Mm, Fig. 1; soon after this period, these lines begin gradually 
to be inflected towards the north, till about the end of February, or the begin- 
ning of March, when they describe the curve lines represented in Fig. 2. After 
the beginning of March, the curvature decreases, till the latter end of May, or 
the beginning of June, when they again describe straight lines tending up- 
wardSjlis in Fig. 3. By and by these straight lines begin to be inflected down- 
wards, till about the beginning of September, when they take the form of a 
curve, having its convex side towards the south pole of the Sun, as in Fig. 4.. 
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 




As thv-Sv phenomena are repeated every year, in the 
same order, and belong to all the spots that have been per- 
ceived upon the Sun's disc, it is concluded, with good rea- 
son, that these spots adhere to the surface of the Sun, and 
revolve witn it, upon an axis, inclined a little to the p'ane 
of the ecliptic. The apparent revolution of.a spot, from any 
particular point of the Sun's disc, to the same point again, 
is accomplished in 27 days, 7 hours, 26 minutes, and 24 se- 
conds; but during that time, the spot has, in fact, gone 
through one revolution, together with an arc, equal to that 
described by the Sun, in his orbit, in the same time, which 
reduces the time of the Sun's actual rotation on his axisr, to 
25 days, 9 hours, and 36 minutes. 

The part of the sun's disc not occupied by spots, is far 
from being uniformly bright. Its ground is finely mottled 
with an appearance of minute, dark dots, or pores, which. 

Illustrate these phenomena 'by diagrams. What conclusions have been drawn from 
Jhese phenomena ? What is the apparent time occupied by a spot in revolving from any 
particular point of the Sun's disc to the same point again? What is the actual time oo 
eupjed by the revolution of the spot, and of course by the Sun on its axis ? 



182 THE SUN. 

attentively watched, are found to be in a constant state ot 
change. 

What the physical organization of the Sun may be, is a 
question which astronomy, in its present state, cannot solve. 
It seems, however, to be surrounded by an ocean of inex- 
haustible flame, with dark spots of enormous size, now and 
then floating upon its surface. From these phenomena, Sii 
W. Herschel supposed the Sun to be a solid, dark body, sur- 
rounded by a vast atmosphere, almost always filled with 
luminous clouds, occasionally opening and disclosing the 
dark mass within. The speculations of Laplace were dif- 
ferent. He imagined the solar orb to be a mass of fire, and 
the violent efiervescences and explosions seen on its surface, 
to be occasioned by the eruption of elastic fluids, formed 
in its interior, and the spots to be enormous caverns, like 
the craters of our volcanoes. Others have conjectured 
that these spots are the tops of solar mountains, which are 
sometimes left uncovered by the luminous fluid in which 
they are immersed. 

Among all the conflicting theories that have been ad- 
vanced, respecting the physical constitution of the Sun, there 
is none entirely free from objection. The prevailing one 
seems to be, that the lucid matter of the Sun is neither a 
liquid substance, nor an elastic fluid, but that it consists of 
luminous clouds, floating in the Sun's atmosphere, which 
extends to a great distance, and that these dark spots are the 
opaque body of the Sun, seen through the openings in his 
atmosphere. Herschel supposes that the density of the lu- 
minous clouds need not be greater than that of our Aurora 
Borealis, to produce the efl'ects with which we are ac- 
quainted. 

The similarity of the Sun, to the other globes of the sys- 
tem, in its supposed solidity, atmosphere, surface diversified 
with mountains and vallies, and rotation upon its axis, has 
led to the conjecture that it is inhabited, like the planets, by 
beings whose organs are adapted to their peculiar circum- 
stances. Such was the opinion of the late Dr. Herschel, 
who observed it unremittingly, with the most powerful tele- 
scopes, for a period of fifteen years. Such, too, was the 
opinion of Dr. Elliott, who attributes to it the most delight- 
ful scenery ; and, as the light of the Sun is eternal, so, he 

Have we been able to determine vhat the physical organization of the Sun is ? What 
was the theory of Sir W. Herschel ii regard to this subject? What was that ofLaplaocI 
What IS the prevailing theory ? What circumstances have led to the conjecture that the 
Sun is inhabited? What was the opinion of Dr. Herschel on this point? How long h&i 
w olwen-od it unremittingly, and with the most powerful telescopes J Wliat waa Um 
Q of Dt. Ellioti upon the same point 1 



MERCURY. 183 

.masrined were its seasons. Hence he infers tnat tnis 
luminary offers one of the most blissful habitations for mtel- 
ligent bemgs of tv^hich we can conceive. 



MERCURY. 



Mercury is the nearest planet to the Sun that has yet 
been discovered ; and with the exception of the asteroids, 
is the smallest. Its diameter is only 2984 miles. Its bulk 
therefore is about 18^ times less than that of the Earth. It 
would require more than 20 millions of such globes to com- 
pose a body equal to the Sun. 

Here the student should refer to the diasrams, exhibiting the rtjlative magni- 
tudes and distances of the Sun and planets, Plate 1. And whenever this sub- 
ject recurs in the course of this work, the student should recur to the figures 
of this plate, until he is able to form in his mind distinct conceptions of the 
relative magnitudes and distances of all the planets. The Sun and planets 
being spheres, or nearly so. their relative bulks are estimated by comparing 
the cubes of their diameters : thus, the diameter of Mercury being 298i miles, 
and that of the earth 7924 ; their bulks are as the cube of 29Si, to the cube of 
7924, or as 1 to IS^, nearly. 

It revolves on its axis from west to east in 24 hours, 5 
minutes, and 28 seconds; which makes its day about 10 
minutes longer than ours. It performs its revolution about 
the Sun in a few minutes less than 88 days, and at a mean 
distance of nearly 37 millions of miles. The length of 
Mercury's year, therefore, is equal to about three of our 
months. 

The rotation of a planet on its axis, constitutes its day ; its revolution about 
the Sun constitutes its year. 

Mercury is not only the most dense of all the planets, 
but receives from the Sun seven times as much light and 
heat as the Earth. The truth of this estimate, of course, 
depends upon the supposition that the intensity of solar light 
and heat at the planets, varies inversely as the squares of 
their distances from the Sun. 

This law of analogy, did it exist with rigorous identity at 
all the planets, would be no argument against their being 
inhabited ; because we are bound to presume that the All- 

What is the distance of :JIerciiTy from the Sun ? "What is its magnitude compared with 
that of the otlier planets? What is its diameter? How many such bodies would it re- 
quire to compose a body equal to the ^un ? Hoiu are the relative bulks of the planers es- 
CiTTiated'f In wliat direction does it revolve on its axis, and what time does it occupy in 
the revolution? In how long time does it perform its revolution about tlie Sun? What is ita 
mean distance from the Sun ? What, then, is the lenath of its vear. compared with ours? 
Wtun measures a planets da >/? M'hat memures its year? What is the density of 
Mercury, compared with that of the other planets ? How much lidit and heat does it re- 
ceive, comL'ared with the Earth ? On what supposition does the truth of this estimat« 
depend? \i this were really the fact in legaid to the planets, would it be any argame* 
Against iheir being inhabited ' 



1S4 MERCURY. 

Wise Creator has attempered evcy dwelling place in tiis 
empire to the physical constitution ot the beings which he 
has placed in it. 

From a variety of facts which have been observed ir. relation to the procJac- 
tfon t/f calori':, it does not appear probable, that the degree of heat on the sur- 
face of the diffeicnt planets depends on their respective distances from the 
San. It is more pro. 'able, thai it depends chiefly on the distribution of the 
subsfance of caloric on the surfaces, and throughout the atmospheres of these 
bodies, in different Quantities, according to the different situations which they 
occupy in tne suiat hysieni ; and that these different quantities of caloric are 
put into action uy Cvh mtluence of the solar rays, so as to produce that degree 
bi sensible heat lequisite to the wants, and to the greatest benefit of each 
of the planets. On this hypothesis, which is corroborated by a great variety 
of facts and experiments, there may be no Ujore sensible heat experienced 
on the planet Mercui-y, than on the surface of Herschel, which is fitly times 
farther removed from the Sun. 

Owing to the dazzling brightness of Mercury, the swift- 
ness of its motion, and its nearness to the Sun, astronomers 
have made but comparatively few discoveries respecting 
it. When viewed through a telescope of considerable 
magnifying power, it exliibits at different periods, all the 
various phases of the Moon ; except that it never appears 
quite full, because its enlightened hemisphere is never turned 
directly towards the Earth, only when it is behind the Sun, 
or su near to it, as to be hidden by the splendour of its 
beams . Its enlightened hemisphere being thus always turn- 
ed towards the Sun, and the opposite one being always dark, 
prov.e thai it is an opaque body, similar to the Earth, shining 
only in the light which it receives from the Sun. 

The rotation of Mercury on its axis, was determined from 
•he daily position of its horns, by M. Schroeter, who not 
only discovered spots upon its surface, but several mountains 
in its southern hemisphere, one of which was lOf miles 
high : — nearly three times as high as Chimborazo, in South 
America. 

It is worthy of observation, that the highest mountains which have been dis- 
eovered in Mercury, Venus, the Moon, and perhaps we may add the Earth, are 
all situated in their southern hemispheres. 

During a few days in March and April, August and Sep- 
tember, Mercury may be seen for several minntes, in the 
morning or evening twilight, when its greatest elonj;a*'ons 
happen in those months ; in all other parts of its orbit, it is 
too near the Sun to be seen by the naked eye. The greatest 

On what does the degree of Titbit at the different -planets probably depend 7 Whf 
have astronomers been able to make but comfiaratively few discoveries respecting Mer- 
cury ? What is its appearance when viewed through a telescope of considerable magnify- 
ing power? What circumstances prove that it is an opaque body,- shining only with the 
bent of the sun? How was the rotation of Mercury on itsa.xis determined, and by whom I 
What did he discover on its surface ? What was the altitude of the highest mountain 
which he saw ? In lohich hemisphere are the highest mountains ivnich have btcn 
iiacovered in Mercury, Venits, and the Moon, nituated ? Does the same feet exist in 
regard to the Earth? Durint' what months may IMerrury be sesn for a few days, an* 
m what parts of the day ? W hv is it visiLile at these times, and nol at others ) 



MERCURY. 1 9b 

distance that it ever departs from ttie Sun, on either side^ 
raries from 16° 12', to 2S° 48', alternately. 

The distance of a planet from the Sun, as seen from the Earth, (measared in 
degrees.) is called its elongation. The greatest absolute finance of a planet 
from the Sun is denominated its aphelion, and the least its perihelion. Ou the 
diagram, exhibiting tlie Relative Position of the Planets' Orbits, [Plate I.j these 

E Dints are represented by little dots in the orbits at the extremities of the right 
nes which meet them; the Perihelion points being above the Ecliptic, the 
Aphelion points below it. 

The revolution of Mercury about the Sun, like that of all 
the planets, is performed from west to east, in an orbit which 
is nearly circular. Its apparent motion as. seen from the 
earth, is, alternately, from west to east, and from east to west, 
nearly in straight lines ; sometimes, directly across the face 
of the Sun, but at all other times, either a little above, or a 
little below it. 

Being commonly immersed in the Sun's rays in the 
evening, and thus continuing invisible till it emerges from 
them in the morning, it appeared to the ancients like two 
distinct stars. A long series of observations was requisite, 
before they recognised the identity of ihe star which was 
seen to recede from the Sun in the morning with that which 
approached it in the evening. But as the one was never 
seen until the other disappeared, both were at last found to 
be the same planet, which thus oscillated on each side of 
the Sun. 

Mercury's oscillation from west to east, or from east to 
west, is really accomplished in just half the time of its revo- 
lution, which is about 44 days ; but as the Earth, in the mean- 
time, follows the Sun in the same direction, the apparent 
elongations will be prolonged to between 55 and 65 days. 

The passage of Mercury over the Sun's disc, is deno- 
minated a Transit. This would happen in every revo- 
lution, if the orbit lay in the same plane with the orbit of 
the Earth. But it does not ; it cuts the Earth' s orbit in two 
opposite points, as the ecliptic does the equator, but at an 
angle three times less. 

See diagram, Relative Position of the Planets' Orbits, and their Inclination 
to the Plane of the Echptic. [Plate I.] The dark hues denote sections in the 
planes of the planets' orbits. The dotted lines continued from the dark lines 
denote the inclination of the orbits to the plane of the Ecliptic, which inclina^ 
tion is marked in figures on them. Let the student fancy as many circular 
pieces of paper, intersecting each other at the several angles of inclinatioo 

What are the greatest distances which it departs from the Sun, on either side ? What 
is the Elongation of a planet 7 What is its Aphelion ? What is its Perihelion 7 la 
what direction does .Mercury revolve about the Sun ? What is the figure of its orbit ? De- 
scribe its apparent motion, as seen from the Earth. How did it appear to the ancients ? 
What was the cause of this appearance ? How were these apparently two distinct stars 
at last tound to be but one ? Y^'hat is the actual period of each elongation of Mercuryl 
Vv'liat the apparent period ? What is the cause of this difterence ? What does the exprea* 
sion, transit of Mercury, signify ? Why doci it not make a transit at every revolution? 



iS6 



MERCUllY. 



marked on this diagram, and he will be enabled to understand more ea«)ij- 

what is meant by the inclination of the planets' orbits. 

It will be perceived on tiie diagram, that the inclination of Mercury's orbU 
to the plane of the ecliptic is 7° 9". 

These points of intersection are called the Nodes of the 
orbit. Mercury's ascending node is in the 16lh degree of 
Taurus ; its descending node in the 16th degree of Scorpio. 
As tiie Earth passes these nodes in November and May. 
the transits of Mercury must happen, for many ages to come 
in one of these months. 

The following is a list of all the Transits of Mercury from the time the firs< 
was observed by Gassendi, November 6, 1631, to the end of the present cen- 
»ury. 

1631 Nov. 6. 

1644 Nov. 6. 



1651 Nov. 

1661 May 3. 

1664 Nov. 4. 

1674 May 6. 

1677 Nov. 7. 

1690 Nov. 9. 

1697 Nov. 2. 



1707 May 5. 

1710 Nov. 6. 

1723 Nov. 9. 

17.36 Nov. 10. 

1740 Nov. 2. 

1743 Nov. 4. 
1753 May 
1756 Nov. 
1769 Nov. 



9. 



1776 Nov. 2. 
1782 Nov. 12. 
17S6 May 3. 
1789 Nov. 5. 
1799 May 7. 
1802 Nov. 8. 
1815 Nov. 11. 
1822 Nov. 4. 
1S32 May 5. 



1835 Nov. 7. 
1845 May 8. 
1848 Nov. 9. 
ISGl Nov. 11. 
1868 Nov. 4 
1878 May 6. 
1881 Nov. 7. 
1891 May 9 
18W Nov. 10. 



By comparing the mean motion of any of the planets with the mean motion 
©f the Earth, we may, in like manner, determine the periods in which these 
bodies will return to the sanje points of their orbit, and the sanie positions 
with respect to the Sun. The knowledge of these periods will enable us to 
determine the hour when the planets rise, set, and pass the meridian, and in 
general, all the phenomena dependent upon the relative position of the Earth, 
the planet, and the Sun; for at the end of one of these perioiis they commence 
again, and all recur in the same order. We have only lo find a number of 
sidereal years, in which the planet completes exactly, or very nearly, a certain 
number of revolutions ; that is, to find such a number of planetary revolutions, 
as, when taken togellier, shall be exactly equal to one. or any number of re- 
volutions of the Earth. In the case of Mercury, this ratio will be, as 87.969 is 
to 365.256. Whence we find. that. 
7 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 29 of Mercury : 
13 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 54 of Mercury : 
33 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 137 of Mercury : 
46 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 191 of Mercury. 
Therefore, transits of Mercury, at the same node, may happen at intervals of 
7, 13, 33. 46, &c. years. Transits of Venus, as well as eclijises of the Sun and 
Moor., are calculated upon the same principle. 

The sidereal revolution of a planet re.spt^cts its absolute motion ; and ia 
measured by the time the planet takes to revolve from any fixed star to the 
same star again. 

The synodical revolurion of a planet respects its relative motion ; and is 
measured by the time that a planet occupies in coming back to the same posi- 
i^.on with respect to the Earth and the Sun. 

The sidereal revolution of Mercury, is 87d. 23h. 15m. 44s. Its synodical re- 
volution is found by dividing the whole circumference of 360° by its relnti^t 
notion in respect to the Earth, Thus, the mean daily motion of Mercury is 

What are the points where the orbits of the planets intersect the orbit of the Earth call- 
ed ? Where is Mercury's ascending node ? Where is its descending node ? In what 
months must the transit of Mercury occur for many a^es to come ? M ny must they occui 
in these months ? Hoio can we determine the periods in lohich theplanrtxxoiU return 
to the same points of their orbits, and the same positions in respect to the Sun ? llTiy 
is it useful to knoio these periods ? State the method of making- the cojnputation. 
What will the ratio be in the case of Mercury 7 State the raiic hettoeen the periodi- 
cal revolutions of the Earth and Mercury. At ichat intervals .hen may transits qf 
Mercury at the same node happen ? Upon what principle are transits of Venus 
end eclipses of the S7in and Moon, calculated? What is the sidereal reiwlution ofn 
flanet 1 What is the synodical revolution 1 What is the time of the sidereal revo- 
lution of Mercury ? State the method of computing the time of the aft/nodical rcvo- 
^tion. Compute the synodical revolutiort, of Idercurv. 



VENUS. 187 

M'/jy .555 ; that of the Earth is SbiS" .318 ; and their difference is IVM' .237, 
ceiiig Mercury's rtlative motion, or what it gains on tlie Earth cverr day. Now 
by simple proportion, 111S4".237 is to 1 day, as 360^ is to 115d. 21h' 3', 25" the 
period of a syuodical revolution of Mercury. 

The absolute motion of Mercury in its orbit, is 109,7l7 
miles an hour ; that of the Earth, is 6S.2SS miles : the 
difference, 41.469 miles, is the mean relative motion of 
Mercury, with respect to the Earth. 



VENUS. 

TeEREarebut few persons who have not observed a beau- 
tiful star in the west a little after sunset, called the evening 
star. This star is Venus. It is the second planet from the 
Sun. It is the brightest star in the firmament, and on this 
account easily distinguished from the other planets. 

If we observe this planet for several days, we shall find 
that it does not remain constantly at the same distance from 
the Sun, but that it appears to approach, or recede from him, 
at the rate of about three fifths of a degree every day ; and 
that it is sometimes on the east side of him, and sometimes 
on the west, thus continually oscillating backwards and for- 
wards between certain limits. 

As Venus never departs quite 48° from the Sun, it ie 
never seen at midnight, nor in opposition to that luminary 
being visible only about three hours after sunset, and as long 
before sunrise, according as its right ascension is greater 
or less than that of the Sun. At first, we behold it only a 
few minutes after sunset; the next evening Ave hardly dis- 
cover any sensible change in its position ; but after a few 
days, we perceive that it has fallen considerably behind the 
Sun, and that it continues to depart farther and farther from 
him, setting later and later every evening, until the distance 
between it and the Sun, is equal to a little more than half 
the space from the horizon to the zenith, or about 46*-'. 

It now begins to return towards the Sun, making the same 
daily progress that it did in separating from him, and to set 
earlier and earlier every succeeding evening, until it final- 
Iv sets with the Sun, and is lost in the splendour of his 
light. 

A few days after the phenomena we have now described, 

What i5 the rate per hoiir of the absolute motion of Mercory in its orbit ? Of the Earth ? 
What is the mean relative motion of Mercury %sith respect to the Earth ? "What beautiful 
gtar sometimes appears in the west a Uttie after sunset 7 What is the comparative dis 
tauce of Venus from the Sun ? What is its comparative brightness ? In what direction is 
its apparent motion ? Why is it never seen at midnight, nor in opix»sition to the Sun ? At 
what times is it visible ? How long ailer sunset is it when we first behold it in the west 
Describe its changes of position. 



1 88 VENDS. 

we perceive, m the morning, near the eastern hofizon, a 
bright star which was not visible before. This also is 
/enus, which is now called the morning star. It departs 
farther and farther from the Sun, rising a little earlier every 
day, until it is seen about 46° west of him, where it appears 
stationary for a few days ; then it resumes its course towards 
the Sun, appearing later and later every morning, until it 
rises with the Sun, and we cease to behold it. In a few days, 
the evening star again appears in the west, very near the 
setting-sun, and the same phenomena are again exhibited. 
Such are the visible appearances of Venus. 

Venus revolves about the Sun from west to east in 224| 
days, at the distance of abont 68 millions of miles, moving 
in her orbit at the rate of 80 thousand miles an hour. She 
turns around on her axis once in 23 hours, 21 minutes, and 
7 seconds. Thus her day is about 25 minutes shorter than 
ours, while her year is equal to 7^ of our months, or 32 
weeks. 

The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is estimated 
at 95 millions of miles, and that of Venus being 68 millions, 
the diameter of the Sun, as seen from Venus, will be to his 
diameier as seen from the Earth, as 95 to 68, and the surface 
of his disc as the square of 95 to the square of 68, that is, as 
9U25 to 4626, or as 2 to 1 nearly. The intensity of ligiit 
and heat being inversely as the squares of their distances 
from the Sun, Venus receives twice as much light and heat 
as the Earth. 

Her orbit is within the orbit of the Earth ; for if it were 
not, she would be seen as often in opposition to the Sun, as 
in conjunction with him ; but she was never seen rising in 
the east while the Sun was setting in the west. Nor was 
she ever seen in quadrature, or on the meridian, when the 
Sun was either rising or setting. Mercury being abuut 23° 
from the Sun, .and Venus 46°, the orbit of Venus must be 
outside of the orbit of Mercury. 

The true diameter of Venus is 7621 miles; but her ap- 
parent diameter and brightness are constantly varying, ac- 
cording to her distance from the Earth. When Venus and 
the Earth are on the same side of the Sun, her distance 



In what direction, and in what time, does Venus revolve about the Sun ? What is her 
distance from the Sun ? What is the rate per hour of her motion in her orbit ? In what 
time does shi- revolve on her axis ? How arc the letiptTis of her day and year, compared 
with those of the Earl:. ? How much larcer does the Sun appear at Venus than he iloes at 
the Earth ? How much more light and heat does she receive from him, than the K^rtlij 
Mow much farther is Venus from the Sun than Mercury ? On which side of the orbit of 
Mercury must her orbit be ? What is her true diameter ' In what proportiof* t*"* w' «)• 
parent diameter and brightness constantly vary? What is her distance from U« £«uth 
when they are both on the same side of the Sun ? 



VENUS. 189 

from the Earth is only 26 millions of miles; when they are 
on opposite sides of the Sun, her distance is 164 millions 
of miles. Were the whole ot her enlightened hemisphere 
turned towards us, when she is K'^arest, she would exhibit 
a light and brilhancy twenty-five times greater than she 
generally does, arid appear like a small brilliant moon; but, 
at that time, her dark hemispheic is turned towards the 
Earth. 

When Venus approaches nearest to the Earth, her apparent, or observed 
diameter, is %\".2; when most remote, it is only 9". 6 : no\v6r'.2-r-9".6 =6|, 
hence when nearest the Earth her apparent diaujeteris 6| times grear- r than 
-vhen most distant, and surface of her disc (6|)^-, or nearly 41 times ^' eater. 
n ;b.is work, the apparent size of the heavenly bodies is estimated iwm the 
apparent surface of their discs, which is always propordonal to the sqi;,^ire3 of 
their apparent diameters. 

When Venus' right ascension is less than that of the Sun, 
she rises before hitn; when greater, she appears after his 
setting. She continues alternately morning and evening 
star, for a period of 292 days, each time. 

To those who are but little acquainted with astronomy, 
It will seem strange, at first, that Venus, should apparently 
coi:|tinue longer on the east or west side of the Sun, than 
the whole time of her periodical revolution around him. But 
it will be easily understood, when it is considered, that while 
Venus moves around the Sun, at the rate of about 1*^ 36' of 
angular motion per day, the Earth follows at the rate of 59'; 
so that Venus actually gains on the Earth, only 37' in a 
day. 

Now it IS evident that both planets will appear to keep on 
the same side of the Sun, until Venus has gained half her 
orbit, or 180^^ in advance of the Earth; and this, at a mean 
rate, will require 292 days, since 292X37'= 10804', or 180° 
nearly. 

Mercury and Venus are called Inferior'^ planets, because 
their orbits are within the Earth's orbit, or between it and 
the Sun. The other planets are denominated SuperioTy 
because their orbits are without or beyond the orbit of the 

* In almost all works on Astronomy, Mercury and Venus are denominated inferior 
planets, and the others, superior. But as these terms are employed, not to express the 
relative size of the planets, but to indicate their situation with respect to the Earth, it 
would be better to adopt the terms interior and exterior. 

What is it when thoy are on opposite sides of the Sun? Which hemisphere is turned 
towards the Earth when she is nearest to us ? Were hsr enlightened hemisphere turned 
towards us at that time, how would her light and brilliancy be compared with that which 
she generally exhibits, and what would be her appearance ? What is the length of her 
apparent diameter when she is nearest to the Earth ? What is it tohen she is most 
remote ? Hoiu is the apparent size of a heavenly body estimated in this loork ? In 
what circumstances does Venus rise before, and in what sot after, the Sun ? How long 
does she continue, each time, alternately morning and evening star ? Why does she ap- 
pear longer on the east or west side of the Sun than the Vt^hole time of her periodical revo- 
lution around him? Why are Mercury and Venu3 called Inferior planets? Why are the 
other planets termed Superior planets t 



190 VENDS. 

Earth. \^Plate /.] As the orbits of Mercury and Veuus 
lie within the Earth's orbit, it is plain, that once in every 
synodical revolution, each of these planets will be in con- 
junction on the same side of the Sun. In the former case, the 
planet is said to be in its inferior conjunction, and in the 
latter case, in its superior conjunction ; as in the following 
figure. 



CONJUNCTION AND OPPOSITION OF THE PLANETS. 
Fig. 5. 




Jcar& 



The period of Venus' synodical revolution is found in the same manner as 
that of Mercury; namely, by dividing the whole circumference of her orbit 
oy her mean relative motion in a day. Thus, Venus' absolute mean daily 
motion is 1° 3G' 7".8. the Earth's is 59' 8". 3. and their difference 3G'r)9".5. 
Divide 360° by 36' 59". 5, and it gives 5S3 920, or nearly 584 days, for 
Venus' synodical revolution, or the period in which she is twice in conjunc- 
lion with the Earth. 

Venus passes from her inferior to her superior conjunction 
in about 292 days. At her inferior conjunction, she is 26 
millions of miles from the Earth; at her superior conjunc- 
tion, 164 millions of miles. 

How often, in every synodical revolution, will each of these plarets be in conjunction 
en the same side of the Sun that the Earth i.'?? How often on the oppojsite side ' Ex- 
plain this. What names distincuish these two species of conjunction ? How u the sy- 
nodical rerofvtion of Venus frmud 7 Make the calctilatio-'). Kow long is she in pa.ss- 
ing from her inferior to her superior conjunction ? How far is she from the Earth at her 
inferior conjunction ) How far at her superior ? 



VENDS. 19- 

It might be expected that her brilliancy would be propor 
tonally increased, in the one case, and diminished, in the 
other; and so it would be, were it not that her enlighte.-^ea 
hemisphere is turned more and more from us, as she ap 
proaches the Earth, and comes more and more into view as 
she recedes from it. It is to this cause alone that we must 
.attribute the uniformity of her splendour as it usually ap- 
pears to the naked eye. 

Mercury and Venus present to us, successively, the 
various shapes and appearances of the Moon ; waxing and 
waning through different phases, from the beautiful crescent 
to the full rounded orb. This fact shows, that they revolve 
around the Sun, and between the Sun and the Earth. Let 
the pupil endeavour to explain these phases on any other 
supposition, and he will be convinced that the system ot 
Ptolemy is erroneous, while that of Copernicus is confirmed. 

It should be remarked, however, tliat Venus is never seen when she is entire- 
ly full, except once or twice in a cciilury, wlien she passes directly over the 
Sun's disc. At every other conjunction, she is either behind the Sun, or so 
near liini as to be hidden by the s)ilcndour of liis light.* The dia^jram on the 
next page will better illustrate tlic various appearances of Venus, as she 
moves around the Sun, than any description of them could do. 

From her inferior to her superior conjunction, Venus ap- 
pears on the west side of the Sun, and is then our morning 
star 5 from her superior to her inferior conjunction she ap- 
Dears on the east side of the Sun, and is then our evening 
star. 

* The eminent astronomer, Thomas Dick, LL. D., well known in this country as th© 
author of the Christian Pliilosopher, Philosophy of a Future State, &c., in a review ofthia 
remark, oteerves— " This ought not to be laid down as a generHi truth. About the year 
1813, I made a ereat variety of obsen'ations on Venus in the clay time, by an equatorial 
instrument, and found, that she could be seen when only l" 27' from the Sun's margin, 
and consequently may be seen at the moment of her superior conjunction, when her geo- 
centric latitude, at that time, equals or ej;ceeds 1= 43'. I have some Ifiint expectations of 
being able to see Venus, in the course of two or three days, at her superior conjunction, 
if the weather be favourable."— ii;a;-c/2 3, 1834. 

AVh.v is not her brilliancy proportionably increased in the former case, and diminished 
m the latter ? What appearances do Mercuiy and Venus present to us at different times 1 
'. hat supposition is necessary for the explanation of these phases ? What system do 
they t£nd to refute ? What system do they contirm ? Hmo often is Venus seen lohen 
me ?s entirely full? Why is she not seen at thefvM oftener? In what part of her or- 
bit does Venus appear on the west sile of the Sun ? in what on the east? In what parti 
iti f be, alternately, morning and evening star? 



^ 



w 

Q 
P 

§ 






O 




VENUa. i^ 

Like Mercury, she sometimes seems to be slatiojiary. 
Her apparent motion, like his, is sometimes rapid ; at one 
dme, direct, and at another, retrograde ; vibrating alternate- 
ly backwards and forwards, from west to east, and from east 
to west. These vibrations appear to extend from 45° to 47°, 
on each side of the Sun. 

Consequently she never appears in the eastern horizon, more than three 
hours before sunrise, nor continues longer in the western horizon, after sun- 
set. Any star or planet, therefore, however brilliant it mar appear, which is 
seen earlier or later than this, cannot be Venus. 

In passing from her western to her eastern elongation, her 
motion is from west to east, in the order of the signs ; it is 
thence called direct motion. In passing from her eastern 
to her western elongation, her motion with respect to the 
Earth, is from east to west, contrary to the order of the 
signs ; it is thence denominated retrograde motion. Her 
motion appears quickest about the time of her conjunctions 
and she seems stationary, at her elongations. She is bright- 
est about 36 days before and after her inferior conjunction, 
when her light is so great as to project a visible shadow in 
the night, and sometimes she is visible even at noon-day. 

In the fsUowing figure, the outer circle represents the Earth's orbit, and the 
inner circle, that of Venus, while she moves around the Sun. in the order of the 
letters a, b, c. d, &c. When Venus is at a, she is in her inferior conjunction, 
between the Earth and Sun ; anil is in a ."situation similar to that of the Moon 
at her ciiange, being then invisible, because her darli hemisphere is towards 
the Earth. At c, she appears half enlightened to the Earth, liketlie Moon in 
her first quarter ; at d, she appears almost full, her enlightened side being 
then almost directly towards the Earth ; at e, she is in her superior conjunc- 
tion, and would appear quite full, were she not directly behind the Siin, or 
so near him as to be hidden by tlie splendour of his light ; at /, she appears 
to be on the decrease; and at g, only half enlightened, like the Moon in her 
last quarter: at a, she disappears again between the Earth and the Sun. In 
moving from g to c, she seems to go backtcards in the heaven.s, because she 
moves contrary to the order of the signs. In turning the arc of the circle 
fi^om retrograde to direct motion, or from direct to retrograde, she appears 
nearly stationary for a few days ; because, in the former case, she is going 
almost directly /ro7rt the Earth, and in the latter, coming towards it. As she 
describes a much larger portion of her orbit in going from c to g^ than from g 
to c. she appear? much longer direct than retrograde. At a mean rate, her re- 
ti'ogradations are accomplished in 42 days. 

Describe her apparent motion. How far on each side of the Sun do the vibrations of 
Venus extend? What then is the longest time before sunrise that she appears in tha 
eas'ern horizor? What the longest tiTne after sunset that she appears in the loest- 
trn 7 What is the direction of her motion v/hile she passes from her western to her east- 
em elongation ? Why is it called direct motion 7 M^hat is its direction as she passes 
from her c^tst&rn to her v/estern eloneation 1 Why is it called retrograde ? When is her 
apparent motion quickest ? When does she appear stationary? Wieaisshe brightest 1 
{low ^eat is her lisht at this time ? 



194 



VENUS 
DIRECT AND RETROGRADE MOTION. 




If the orbit of Venus lay exactly in the plane of the 
Earth's orbit, she would pass centrally across the Sun's 
disc, like a dark round spot, at every inferior conjunction ; 
but as one half of her orbit lies about 3^° above the ecliptic, 
and the other half as far below it, she will always pass the 
Sun a very little above or below it, except when her in- 
ferior conjunction happens in, or near, one of her nodes ; 
in which case she will make a transit. [^Relative position 
of the PlaneVs Orbits, Plate I— Plane of Venus — Inclinor 
tion 3° 23'.] 

This phenomenon, therefore, is of very rare occurrence; 
it can happen only twice in a century ; because it is only 
twice in that time that any number of complete revolutions 
of Venus, are just or nearly equal to a certain number of 
the Earth's revolutions. 

The principle which was illustrated in predirting the transits of Mercury 
applies equally well to thcs^e of Venus ; that is, we must tind surli sets o 
numbers, (representing complete revolutions of the Eartli and Venus.) aa 
shall be to each other in the ratio of their periodical times, or as SW 2.% is tc 
224.7. Thus; the motion of Venus, in the .Julian years, is 2iOf3591".52 
that of the Earth for the same period being 129627".45, the ratio will b« 

"Why does not Venus pass centrally across the Sun's disc at eveo' inferior conjunction 
n what circumstances will she miike a transit across the .sun? How often can this phe 
nomenon happen ? Why can it not happen oflener ? State the method of predicting tui 
transits of Venus 



VENDS. 19^5 

f -^ 9 6 f " ? ^"•^^' '*^^ '^'® ^^° terms of this fraction cannot be leautreil by a 
common divisor, we must multiply them by such numbers as will aiake one 
R multiple of the other ; accordingly, 13 times the denominator will be nearly 
equal to 8 times the numerator ; aiid 475 times the denominator will equal 291 
times the numerator. 

By combining these two periods and their multiples by addition and sub- 
traction, we shall obtain the period of all the transits that have ever happened 
Thus; '291— Sy 7=235, another period; and 291— 6X3=243, another period, 
aiid s(? ju. Whence we find that, 

S periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 13 of Venus. 

2.35 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to .382 of Venus. 

243 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 395 of Venus. 

251 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 408 of Venus. 

291 periodical revolutions of the Earth, are equal to 475 of Venus. 

Hence a transit of Venus may happen at the same node, after an interval 
of 8 years ; but if it do not happen then, it cannot take place again, at the 
same node, in less than 235 years. The orbit of Venus crosses the ecliptic 
near the middle of Gemini and Sagittarius ; and these points mark the po- 
sition of her nodes. At present, her ascending node is in the 14th degree of 
Qemini, and her descending node, in the same degree of Sagittarius. 

The Earth passes her ascending node in the beginning of 
December, and her descending node, in the beginning of 
June. Hence, the transits of Venus, for ages to come, will 
happen in December and June. The first transit evei 
inown to have been seen by any human being, took place 
at the ascending node, December 4th, 1639.* If to this 
date, we add 235 years, we shall have the time of the next 
Tans it at the same node, which will accordingly happen in 
(874. There will be another at the same node in 1332, 

* This phenomenon was first witnessed hy Horrox, a youne gentleman about 21 years 
if a?e, living in an ulwcure village IT niiles north of Liverpool. The tables of Kepler, con- 
srructed 'ipon the observation.-; of Tyclio Brahe, indicated a transit of Venus in 1631, b'ut 
nine Wis tiliserved. Horrox, without much assL^tancc from books and instruments, sec 
himself to imiuire into the error of the tables, ar^d found that such a phenomenon might 
■K.' espocted to liappen in I6d9. He repeated his calculatiims during this inter\'al, wirh 
4ii ibo carefulness and entliusiasm of a scholar ambitious of lieing the first to predict and 
Dbsen-e a celestial phenomenun, wliich, from the creation uf the world, had never been 
witnessed. Gor.tident of the result, lie communicated his expected triumph to a confi- 
dential friend residinsr in .Manciiester, and desired bim to watch for the event, and to take 
oDser-Mtions. .So anxious was iionox not to fail of witnes-i ng it himself, that he com- 
menced hi- observations the day before it was expected, and resumed them at the rising 
of rhe Sun on the morrow. But the cerv hmr when his cal.'ulations led him to expect 
the vi.-:i''le appearance of V'enus upon the Sun'f disc. lO'is also tl^e appointed hour for 
th" p'lhic w usfdp of God on 'ht 'riaioath. The delay of a few iriinutes might deprive 
tiiai fc'oier of an opi "ortunity of observing the transit. If its very commencement were 
i'.>t r.itii^l, clouds mi^'ht intervene, and conceal it until the Sun should set : and nearly a 
iP':t'iry cLid a half would elapse before another opportunity v.-ould occur. He had been 
vaiting for the event with the most ardi-nt anticipation forftight.years, and the result pro- 
mis, d mucVi benefit to the science N-^tioithatandhig all this, Horrox tioice su-tpend/- 
ed his ■jbser-jat/L-)!.'^. and twice repaired to the Rouse of God, the Great Author of the 
brieht worlcs he delighted to contemplate. "When his duty was thus peifurmed, and he 
had retiuned lo liis chan;ber the second time, his love of science was gravified with full 
success ; and he saw whit no mortal eye had observed before ! 

If any thing et^n add interest to this incident, it is the modesty with v,hich the young 
astronomer an-iiogizes to tlie world, for suspending his obser\'ations at all. 

" I observed it," says he, " from sunrise till nine o'clock, again a httie before ten, and 
lastly at neon, and from one to two o'clock ; the rest of the day beir>g devoted to higher 
duties, which m.Jirhtnot be neglected for these pastimes." 

^ter how long an in.'erval may a transit of Vemi-s happen again at the same node J 
If it do not Mppen then, how long a period must elapse before it loill occur again 
at the same node? Where doea the orbit of Venus cross the ecliptic, and xohere ars 
her nodes? In what months, for aces to come, will the transits of Venus happen, and 
why? At which node, and when, did the first transit of Venus ever knnwn to nave been 
i^jserved, take place ? When will the next two transits occur? 



196 VENUS 

piglit years afterwards. It is not more certain that this phe- 
nomenon will recur, than that the event itself will engross 
the attention of all the astronomers then living upon the 
Earth. It will be anticipated, and provided for, and observ- 
ed, in every inhabited quarter of the globe, with an inten- 
sity of solicitude which no natural phenomena, since the 
creation, has ever excited. 

The reason Avhy a transit of Venus should excite so great 
an interest, is, because it may be expected to solve an im- 
portant problem in astronomy, which has never yet been 
satisfactorily done : — a problem whose solution will make 
known to us the magnitudes and masses of all the planets, 
the true dimensions of their orbits, their rates of motion 
around the Sun, and their respective distances from the Sun, 
and from each other. It may be expected, in short, to furnish 
a universal standard of astronomical measure. Another 
consideration will render the observation of this transit pe- 
culiarly favourable ; and that is, astronomers will be supplied 
with better instruments, and more accurate means of obser- 
vation, than on any former occasion. 

So important, says Sir John Herschel, have these obsen-ations appeared to 
astronomers, that at the last transit of Venus, in 1769, expeditions were fitted 
out, on the most efficient scale, by the British, Frencli, Russian, and other 
governments, to the remotest corners of the globe, for tlie express purpose 
of njalting them. The celebrated expedition of Captain Conk fo Otaheite, 
was one of them. The general result of all the (ibs<Tvations made on this 
most memorable occasion, gives 8".5776 for th'e Sun's horizontal parallax. 

The phenomena of the seasons, of each of the planets, 
like those of the Earth, depend upon the inclination of the 
axis of the planet, to the plane of its orbit. The inclination 
of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit, though nol 
precisely known, is commonly estimated at 75°; which is 
more than three limes as great as the inclination of the 
Earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic. The north pole of 
Venus' axis inclines towards the 20th degree of Aquarius; 
the Earth's towards the beginning of Cancer; consequently, 
the northern parts of Venus have summer in the signs where 
those of the Earth have winter, and vice versa. 

The declination of the Sun on each side of her equator. 
must be equal to the inclination of her axis ; and if this ex 
tends to 75°, her tropics are only 15° from her poles, and 
her polar circles 15*^ from hei equator. It follows, also, that 

Whj- will the next transit excite a very great and universal interest? Upon what do the 
phenainena of the seasons of each of the planets depend? What is theestimatwl inclina- 
tion of the axis of Venus to the plane of her orbit ? How docs this inclination compare 
with dial of the t'.arlh's axis to the plane of the ecliptic? What scason.s have the north- 
ern pirts of Venus, when tiiose of the Earth have winter? How do wi know this? To 
what nui^t the declination of the Sun on each side of her enuator be equal ? How far art 
Der triipics from her poles, and her uolar circles from lior equator 1 



VENUS. 197 

the Sun must change his declination more in one day at 
Venus, than in five days on the Earth; and consequently, 
that he never shines vertically on the same places for two 
days in succession. This may perhaps be providentially 
ordered, to prevent the too great effect of the Sun's heat, 
which, on the supposition that it is in inverse proportion to 
the square of the distance, is twice as great on this planet 
as it is on the Earth. 

At each pole, the Sun continues half a year* without set- 
ting in summer, and as long without rising in winter; con- 
sequently, the polar inhabitants of Venus, like those of the 
earth, have only one day and one night in the year; with 
this diilerence, that the polar days and nights of Venus are 
not quite two thirds as long as ours. 

Between her polar circles, Vv'hich are but 15*^ from her 
equator, there are two winters, two summers, two springs, 
and two autumns, every year. But because the Sun stays 
for some time near the tropics, and passes so quickly over 
the equator, the winters in that zone will be almost twice as 
long as the summers. 

TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF VENC8. 

Fig. 8. 




W^hen viewed through a good telescope, Venus exhibits 
not only all the moon- like phases of Mercury, but also a va- 
riety of inequalities on her surface; dark spots, and brilliant 
shades, hills, and valleys, and elevated mountains. But 
on account of the great density of her atmosphere, these in- 



* That is, half of Venus' year, or 16 weeks. 



How much more must the Sun change his dechnation in one day at Venus than on the 
Earth? Why, perhaps, is tliis so ordered? How many days and nights have her polai 
inhabitants durins: the year 7 How long are these days and nights, compared with thosa 
of our polar inhabitants ? How many, and what seasons, has Venus between herpoleu 
circles ? What is the length of the winters in this zone, compared \^'ith that of the sum- 
mers ? What appearances, besides lier moon-Lke phases, does Venus exhibit when seen 
Uirough a good telescope? 

17* 



198 THE EARTH. 

equalities are perceived witli more difficulty than those up- 
on the other planets. 

The mountains of Venus, like those of Mercury and the 
Moon, are highest in the southern hemisphere. According 
to M. Schroeter, a celebrated German astronomer, who 
spent more than ten years in observations upon this planet, 
some of her mountains rise to the enormous height of from 
10 to 22 miles.* The observations of Dr. Herschel do no! 
indicate so great an altitude ; and he thinks, that in general 
they are considerably overrated. He estimates the diame 
ter of Venus at 8,649 miles; making her bulk more than 
one sixth larger than that of the Earth. Several eminent 
astronomers affirm, that they have repeatedly seen Venus 
attended by a satellite, and they have given circumstantial 
details of its size and appearance, its periodical revolution^ 
and its distance from her It is said to resemble our Moon 
in its phases, its distance, and its magnitude. Other astro- 
nomers deny the existence of such a body, because it was 
not seen with Venus on the Sun's disc, at the transits of 
1761, and 1769. 



THE EARTH. 

The Earth is the place from which all our observations 
of the heavenly bodies must necessarily be made. The ap 
parent motions of these bodies being very considerably af- 
fected by her figure, motions, and dimensions, these hold 
an important place in astronomical science. It will there- 
fore be proper to consider, first, some of the methods by 
which they have been determined. 

If, standing on the sea-shore, in a clear day, we view a 
ship leaving the coast, m any direction, the hull or body of 
the vessel first disappears ; afterwards the rigging, and lastly, 
the top of the mast vanishes from our sight. Those on board 
the ship, observe that the coast first sinks below the horizon, 
then the buildings, and lastly the tallest spires of the city 

* 1st, 22.05 miles j 2d, 18.97 miles j 3d, 11.44 miles ; 4th, 10.81 miles. 

Why is it more difficult to perceive the inequalities on her surface than those on the 
i»ther planets ? In wiiich hemisphere are her mountains highest ? What dmss M. .Schroe 
ter make the altitude of some of tiie highest ? Is this estimate confirmed hy the ohserva 
tions of Or. Herschel ? How long is the diameter of Venus, according to Herschei's ea- . 
timate ? How much larger, then, must she he than tlie Earth ? Some astnmomer.s affirm 
that they have seen Venus attended by a sal<>llitc, why do others deny the existence of 
«uch a body ) Why is it importmt, in an astronomical iew, to be acqiuiinti-d with th« 
figure, dimensions, and motions of the Earth ? Mention some of the proofs of the con- 
vexity of its surface ? 



THE EARTH. 



199 



which they are leaving. Now these phenomena are evi- 
dently caused by the convexity of the water which is be- 
tween the eye and the object ; for, were the surface of the 
sea merelv an extended plain, the largest objects would be 
risible the .ongest, and the smallest disappear first. 



CONVEXITY OF THE EARTH. 

Fig.' 




Again : navigators have sailed quite around the Earth, 
and thus proved its convexity. 

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, was the first who carried this enterprise 
Into execution. He embarked from Seville, in Spain, and directed his course 
towards the west. After along voyage, he descried the continent of America. 
Not finding an opening to enable him to continue his course in a westerly 
direction, he sailed along the coast towards the south, till, coming to its sou- 
thern extremity, he sailed around it, and found himself in the great Southern 
Ocean. He then resumed his course towards the west. After some time he 
arrived at the Molucca Islands, in the EasteTn Hemisphere ; and sailing con- 
tinually towards the west, he made Europe from the east; arriving at the place 
from which he set out.* 

The next who circumnavigated the Earth, was Sir Francis Drake, who sail- 
ed from Plymouth, December 13, 1577, with five small vessels, and ai-rived at 
the same place, September 26, 1580. Since that time, the circumnavigation of 
the Earth has been performed by Cavendish, Cordes, Noort, Sharten. Here- 
mites, Darapier, Woodes, Rogers, Schovten, Roggewin, Lord Anson, Byron, 
Carteret, Wallis, Bougainville, Cook, King, Clerk, Vancouver, and many othera 

These navigators, by sailing in a westerly direction, al- 
lowance being made for promontories, &c. arrived at the 
country they sailed from. Hence, the Earth must be either 
cylindrical or globular. It cannot be cylindrical, because, 
if so, the meridian distances would all be equal to each other, 
which is contrary to observation. The figure of the Earth 
is, therefore, spherical. 

The convexity of the Earth, north and south, is proved 
by the altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars, 

* Magellan sailed fi-om Seville, in Spain, August 10, 1519, in the ship called the Victo- 
rv, accompanied by four other vessels. In April, 1521, he was killed in a skirmish with 
the natives, at the island of Sehu, or Zebu, sometimes called Matan, one of the Philip- 
pines. One of his vessels, however, arrived at St. Lucar, near Seville, September 7, 1522. 

Who first sailed around the Earth ? Describe briefly his voyage. Who next cir- 
cumnavigated the Earth! Describe his vo7jage Me^ition thevamesof some of those 
who have since accom-plished this enterfrise. What may we infer from these facts in 
/egard to the figure of the Earth 1 How is the convexity of Tier surface proved ? 



200 THE EARTH. 

which is found uniformly to increase as we approach them, 
while the inclination to the horizon, of the circles described 
by all the stars, gradually diminishes. While proceeding 
in a southerly direction, the reverse of this takes place. 
The altitude of the pole, and of the circumpolar stars, con- 
tinually decreases; and all the stars describe circles whose 
inclination to the horizon increases with the distance. 
Whence we derive this general truth : The altitude of one 
pole, and the depression of the other, at any place on the 
Earth''s surface, is equal to the latitude of that place. 

Another proof of the convexity of the earth's suiface is, 
that the higher the eye is raised, the farther is the view ex- 
tended. An observer may see the setting sun from the top 
of a house, or any considerable eminence, after he has ceas 
ed to be visible to those below. 

The curvature of the Earth for one mile is 8 inches ; and this curvature 
increases with the square of the distance. Frciii this general law, it will be 
easy to calculate the distance at which any object whose height is given, may 
be seen, or to determine the height of an object when the distance is knowu 

1st. To find the height of the object when the distance is given. 

Rule. Find the square of the distance inmilea, and lake tico thirds of that 
nujnhp.rfor the height in feet. 

Ex. 1. — How high must the eye of an obsej^er be raised, to see the surfare 
of the ocean, at the distance of three miles 1 Ans. The square oi 3 ft., is 9 
ft., and f of 9 ft. is 6 ft. Ex. 2. Suppose a person can just see the rop of a 
spire over an extpndcd plain often miles, how high is the steeple 1 Atis. The 
square of 10 is inO, and | of 100, is (ief, feet. 

2. To find the distance, when the height is given. 

Rule. Increase tht height in feet one half, and extract the square root, for 
the distance, in miles. 

Ex. ].— How far can a person see the surface of a plain, whose eye is ele- 
vated six feet above it ? Ans. 6, increased by its half, is 9, ami the square 
root of 9 is 3 ; the distance is then 3 miles. Ex. 2.— To v.'haf disiance can a 
person see a light-house whose height is 96 feet from the level of the ocean 7 
Ans. 96 increased by its half, is 144, and the square root of 144 is 12; the 
distance is therefore 12 miles. 

3. To find the curvature of the Earth when it exceeds a mile. 
Rule. Multiply the square of the distance by .000120. 

Although it appears from thf- preceding facts, that t!ie 
Earth is spherical, yet it is not a perfect sphere. If it were, 
the length of the degrees of latitude, from the equator to tliei 
poles, would be uniformly the same ; })ut it has been found, 
by the most careful measurement, liiai as we go from the 
equator towards the poles, the length increases icith t/ie lati- 
tude. 

These measurements have been made by the most eminent malViemaliciang 
f^ different countries, and in various places, from the equator to the arctic 

To what is the convexity proportional ? State the rule, deduced from this fact, 
for finding the height of an object, when its distance frrnn vs is given. S/ate the 
rule for finding the distance when the height is given. State the rule for finding 
the curvature of the Earth lohen the distance exceeds a mile. Is the fi^uie of the Earlb 
an exact sphere ? Were the Earth a perfect sphere, how would the length of tlie des'^iei 
of latitude be, compared with each other 3 How are tbev. in fuct^ 



THE EARTH. 



201 



circle. Tljey have found that a decree of latitude at the arctic circle was 
nine girteenlhs of a mile longer than a degree at the equator, and that the ratio 
of increase for the intermediate degrees was nearly as the squares cfthe 
sines of the latitude. Thus the theory of Sir Isaac Newton was confu ojed, 
thai the body of the Earth was more rounded and convex between the tropics, 
but considerably flattened towards the poles. 



Places of 
Observation. 



Latitude. 



Length of a degree 
in English miles. 



Observers. 



Peru Equator. 

Pennsylvania .39^ 12' N 

Iraly " 

France 

England 

Sweden 



43 01 

46 

51 29' 541" 

66 20 10" 



68.7-32 
6S.S96 
6S.99S 
69.054 
69.146 
69.292 



Bouguer. 

Mason and Dixon. 

Boscovich and Lemaire. 

Delambre and Mechaiu. 

Mudge. 

Swauiberg. 




These measurements prove fne Earth to be an oblate 
spheroid, whose longest or equatorial diameter is 7924 miles, 
and polar diameter, 7S9S miles. Tha mean diameter is, 
therefore, about 7912. and their difference 26 miles. The 
French Academy hare determined that the mean diameter 
of the Earth, from the 45th degree of north latitude, to th« 
opposite degree of south latitude, is accurately 7912 miles 

If the Earth were an exact sphere, its diameter Fig. 10. 

might be deterujined by its cun^ature, from a single 
measurement. Thus, in the adjoining figure, we have 
A B equal to 1 mile, and B D equal to 8 inches, to 
find A E, or B E, wiiich does not sensibly ditfe^- from 
A E, since B D is only S inches. Now it is a propo- 
sition of Euclid, (B. 3, prop. 36,) that, when from a 
point without a circle, two lines be drawn, one cutting 
and the other touching it. flie touching hue (B A) is a 
mean proportional between the cuttin"g line (B E) and 
that part of it (B U) without the circle. 

B D : B A : : B A : BE or A E very nearly. 

That is, 1 mile beins equal to 6.3360 inches, 

8 : 63360 : : 6-3360 : 50131120 inches, or 7920 miles. 

This is very nearly what the most elaborate calculations make the Earth's 
equatorial diameter. 

The Earth, considered as a planet, occupies a favoured 
rank in the Solar System. It pleased the All-wise Crea- 
tor to assign its position among the heavenly bodies, where 
nearly all the sister planets are visible to the naked eye. 
It is situated next to Venus, and is the third planet from the 
Sun. . 

To the scholar who for the first time takes up a book on astronomy, it wiU 
no doubt seem strange to find the Earth classed with the heavenly bodies. 

^Vhat is ^he length of a degree at the Arctic circle, compared toith a degree at the 
eQJtator, (u fo2ind by the meamiremcnts of different 7natheinaticians7 What have 
theyfouna to be the ratio of increase for the intermediate desrees 7 Whnt theory 
do these facts confirm ? What is ttie length of tlie Earth's eauatorial diameter, as found 
by these measurements 7 What, her polar diameter 1 What is the difierence between the 
two? What IS her mean diameter? What have the French academy determined to be 
tlie exact mean diameter from the 4.5th degree of north latitude to the opposite degree of 
south latitude? Illustrate the ynethod of finding the diameter of the Earth from her 
curvature, on the supposition that her figure is an exact sphere. What is the length 
of her diameter as thusfourid 7 Hoivisthis, comparedioith the equatorial diameter, 
as found by the most elaborate calculations ? What is the position of the Earth ia the 
Solar System? 



202 THE EARTH. 

For what can appear more unlike, than the Earth, with her vast and ■ejminglv 
immeasurable extent, and the stars, which appear but as points 7 The Earth 
is dark and opaque, the celestial bodies are brilliant. We perreive in it no 
motion ; while in them we observe a conmuia! change of place, as we view 
tliem at different hours of the day or night, or at different seasons of the year 

It moves round the Sun, from west to east, in 365 days 
5 hours, 48 minutes, and 48 seconds; and turns, the sami 
way, on its axis, in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds 
The former is called its annual motion, and causes the 
vicissitudes of the seasons. The latter is called its diurnal 
motion, and produces the succession of day and night. 

The Earth's mean distance from the Sun is about 95 
millions of miles. It consequently moves in its orbit at the 
mean rate of 68 thousand miles an hour. Its equatorial di- 
ameter being 7924 miles, it turns on its axis at the late of 
1040 miles an hour. 

Thus, the earth on which we stand, and which has serv- 
ed for ages as the unshaken foundation of the firmest struc- 
tures, is every moment turning swiftly on its centie, and, af 
the same tmie, moving onwards with great rapidity through 
the empty space. 

This compound motion is to be understood of the whole 
eaH/i, with all that it holds within its substance, or sustains 
upon its surface — of the solid mass beneath, of the ocean 
which flows' around it, of the air that rests upon it, and of 
the clouds which float above it in the air. 

That the Earth, in common with all the planets, revolves 
around the Sun as a centre, is a fact which rests upon the 
clearest demonstrations of philosophy. That it revolves, 
like them, upon its own axis, is a truth which every rising 
and setting sun illustrates, and which very many phenomena 
concur to establish. 

Either the Earth moves around its axis every day. or the 
whole universe moves around it in the same time. There 
is no third opinio *hat can be formed on this point. Either 
the Earth must r-^'i^olve on its axis every 24 hours, to pro- 
duce the alternate succession of day and night, or the Sun, 
Moon, planets, comets, fixed stars, and the whole frame of 
the universe itself, must move around the Earth, in the same 
time. To suppose the latter case to be the fact, would be 
to cast a reflection on the wisdom of the Supreme Architect, 
whose laws are universal harmony. As well might the 
beetle, that in a moment turns on its ball, imagine the heav- 

What revolutions does it perform, and in what direction ? What is the time occupied in 
«ach of these revolutions ? By what terms are these revolutions distinguished, and what 
important effects do they produce? What is the Earth's mean distance from the Sun J 
What is the mean rate of its motion in its ori<it i>er hour ? What is the rate of its revolu- 
tien on its axis uer hour) What are the pi oofs, that \i performs these two revolutions? 



rUE EARTH. 203 

ens and the Earth had made a revolution in the same instant. 
It is evident, that in proportion to the distance of the ce- 
Jestial bodies from the Earth, must, on this supposition, be 
the rapidity of their movements. The Sun, then, would 
move at the rate of more than four hundred thousand miles 
in a minute ; the nearest stars, at the inconceivable velocity 
of 1400 millions of miles in a second; and the most distant 
luminaries, with a degree of swiftness which no numbers 
could express, — and all this, to save the little globe we tread 
upon, from turning safely on its axis once in 24 hours. 

The idea o^ the heavens revolving about the Earth, is en- 
cumbered with -innumerable other difficulties. We will 
mention only one more. It is estimated on good authority, 
that there are visible, by means of glasses, no less than one 
hundred millions of stars, scattered at all possible distances 
in the heavens above, beneath, and around us. Now. is it 
in the least degree probable, that the velocities of all these 
bodies should be so regulated, that, though describing circles 
so very different in dimensions, they should complete their 
revolutions in exactly the same time. 

In short, there is no more reason to suppose that the heav- 
ens revolve around the Earth, fhan there is to suppose chat 
they revolve around each of the other planets, separately, 
and at the same time ; since the same apparent revolution is 
common to them all, for they all appear to revolve upon 
their axis, in different periods. 

The rotation of the Earth determines the length of the 
day, and may be regarded as one of the most important el- 
ements in astronomical science. It serves as a universal 
measure of time, and forms the standard of comparison for 
the revolutions of the celestial bodies, for all ages, past and 
to come. Theory and observation concur in proving, that 
among the innumerable vicissitudes that prevail throughout 
creation, the period of the Earth's diurnal rotation is immu- 
table. 

The Earth performs one complete revolution on its axis 
in 23 hours. 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds, of solar time 
This is called a sidereal day, because, in that time, the 
stars appear to complete one revolution around the Earth. 

But, as the Earth advances almost a degree eastward in 
its orbit, in the time that it turns eastward around its axis, 
it is plain that just one rotation never brings the same me- 
ridian around from the Sun to the Sun again j so that the 
Earth itrquires as much more than, one complete revolution 

What important purposes does the period of the Earth's rotation serve ? What is a » 
(tereai day 1 What is a solar day 3 



804 THE EARTH. 

on its axis to complete a solar day, as it has gone forward 
in that time. Hence in every natural or solar day, the 
Eartli performs one complete revolution on its axis, and the 
365th part of another revolution. Consequently, in 365 
ilays, the Earth turns 366 times around its axis. And as 
every revolution of the Earth on its axis completes a side- 
real day, there must be 366 sidereal days in a year. And, 
generally, since the rotation of any planet about its axis ia 
the length of a sidereal day at that planet, the number of 
sidereal days will always exceed the number of solar davs, 
by one, let that number be what it may, one revolution be- 
ing always lost in the course of an annual revolution. This 
difference between the sidereal and solar days may be il- 
uslrated by referring to a watch or clock. When both 
nands set out together, at 12 o'clock for instance, the minute 
hand must travel more than a whole circle before it will 
overtake the hour hand, that is, before they will come into 
conjunction again. 

In the same manner, if a man travel around the Earth 
eastwardly, no matter in what time, he will reckon one dav 
more, on his arrival at the place whence he set out, than 
they do who remain at rest; while the man who travels 
arround the Earth westwardly will have one day less. From 
which it is manifest, that, if two persons start from the same 
place at the same time, but go in contrary directions, the 
one travelling eastv^rd and the other westward, and each 
goes completely around the globe, although they should both 
arrive again at the very same hour at the same place from 
which they set out, yet they will disagree two whole days 
m their reckoning. Should the day of their return, to the 
man who travelled westwardly, be Monday, to the man who 
travelled eastwardly, it would be Wednesday; while to 
those who remained at the place itself, it would be Tuesday. 

Nor is it necessary, in order to produce ihe gam or loss 
of a day, that the journey be perfoimed either on the equa- 
tor, or on any parallel of latitude ; it is sufficient for the 
purpose, that all the meridians of the Earth be passed 
through, eastward or westward. The time, also, occupied 
in the journey, is equally unimportant ; the gain or loss of 
a day being the same, whether the Earth be travelled 
around in 24 years, or in as many hours. 

what part of a second revolution docs the Earth complete in every solar day ? How 
many times, then, does it turn on its axis in 365 days ? How many sidereal days are thenj 
in a year? On any planet, what Is the number of the sidereal days compared with the 
numl>er of the solar? Illustrate the difference between the sidereal and solar days hy re- 
ferring to a watch or clock. Illustrate it by referring to two travellers going around tlie 
rl<)be, one eastwardly and the other westwardly. 



THE EARTH. 205 

It IS also evident, that if the Earth turned around its axis 
but once in a year, and if the revolution was performed the 
same way as its revolution around the Sun, there would be 
perpetual day on one side of it, and perpetual night on the 
other. 

From these facts the pupil will readily comprehend the principles involved 
in a curious problem which appeared a few years ago : It was gravely report- 
ed by an American ship, that, in sailing over the ocean, it chanced to find six 
Sun'dai/s in February. The fact was insisted on. and a solution demanded. 
There is nothing absurd in this. — The man who travels around the Earth east- 
wardly, will see the Sun go down a little earUer every succeeding day, than 
if he had remained at rest ; or earher than they do who live at the place from 
which he set out. The faster he travels towards the rising sun, the sooner 
will it appear above the horizon in the morning, and so much sooner will ii set 
in the evening. Wliat he thus gains in time, will bear the same proportion to 
a solar day, as the distance travelled does to the circumference of the Earth. 
— As the globe is .360 degrees in circumference, the Sun will appear to move 
over one twenty-fourth part of its surface, or 14°, every hour, which is 4 
minutes to one degree. — Consequently, the Sun will rise, come to the meri- 
dian, and set, 4 minutes sooner, at a place 1° east of us, than it will with us ; 
at the distance of 2° the Sun will rise and set S mmutes sooner; at the dis- 
tance of 3°, 12 minutes sooner, and so on. 

Now the man who travels one degree to the east, the first day, will have the 
Sun on his meridian 4 minutes sooner than we do who are at rest ; and the 
second day, 8 minutes sooner, and on the third day, 12 minutes sooner, and so 
on ; each successive day being completed 4 minutes earlier than the preced- 
ing, until he arrives again at the place from which lie started ; when this con- 
tinual gain of 4 minut~es a day will have amounted to a whole day in advance 
of our time ; he having seen the Sun rise and set once more than we have. 
Consequently, the day on which he arrives at iiome, whatever day of the w^eek 
it may be, is one day in advance of ours, and he must needs live "that day over 
again, by calling the next day by the same name, ir. order to make the accounts 
harmonize. 

If this should be the last day of February in a bissextile year, it would alse 
be the same day of the week that the first was, and be six tunes repeated 
and if it should happen on Sunday, he would, under these circumstances, 
have six Sundays in February. 

Again : — Whereas the man 'who travels at the rate of one degree to the east 
will liave all his days 4 minutes shorter than ours, so. on the contrary, the 
man who travels at" the same rate towards the west, will have all his days ■J 
minutes longer than ours. When he has finished the circuit of the Earth 
and arrivei at the place from which he first set out, he will have seen tlit 
Sun rise and set once /e.9sthaii we have. Consequently, the day he gets lioma 
will be one day after the tim.e at that place : for which reason, if he arrives aX 
home on Saturday, according to his own account, he will have to call the next 
day Monday-. Sunday having gone by before he reached hojne. Thus, on 
wliatever day of the w"eek January should end. in common years, he wouIpI 
find the same day repeated only three times in February. If January ended 
on Sunday, he would, under these circumstances, find only three Sundays in 
February. 

The Earth's motion about its axis being perfectly equa- 
Dle and uniform in every part of its annual revolution, the 
sidereal days are always of the same length, but the solar or 
naiaral days vary very considerably at different times of the 
year. This variation is owing to two distinct causes: the 

If the Earth revolved on its axis but once a year, and in the same direction as it revolves 
around the Sun. what would be the consequence as it re^rds day and night ? It was 
gravely reported some years ago by an American ship, that in saiUn-g over the ocean, 
it found six Sundays in Fehrvary; please explain this. Why are the sidereal days 
always of the same length ? What are the causes of tlie difference in tl-e length of the 
■olar days? 

IS 



206 



THE EARTH. 



mclinaliOD of the Earth's axis to its orbit, and the inequa-itt 
of its motion around the Sun. From these two causes it 
is, that the time shown by a well regulated clock arid mat 
of a true sun-dial are scarcely ever the same. The diii'erencp 
between them, which sometimes amounts to 16| minutes 
is called the Equaiioii of Time, or the equation of solar 
days. 

The difference between mean and apparent time, or, in other woiils, be 
tween Equinoctial and Ecliptic tnne, may be furtlier shown by Figure 11, 
which represents the circles of the sphere. I.et it be first premised, that 
ei{ULnoctical time is clock time ; and that ecliptic time is solar or apparent 
time. It appears, that from Aries to Cancer, tlie sun in the ecliptic comes to 
the meridian l.ejvre the equinoctial sini ; from Cancer to Libra, after it; from 
Libra to Capricorn, before it; and from Capricorn to Aries, after it. If we 
notice what months the Sun is in these sever-al quarters, we sliall find, thai 
from the 2;')th of December to the IGtIi of April, and from the 16th of June t« 
tlie Isi of September, the clock is faster than the sun-dial ; and that, from the 
I6th of April to the 16th of June, and from the 1st of September to the 25til 
of December, the sun-dial is faster than the clock. 

EQUATION OF TIME. 
Fig. 11. 




It is a universal fact, that, while none of the planets are 
perfect spheres, noneof their orbits are perfect circles. The 
planets all revolve about the Sun, in ellipses of different 
degrees of eccentricity ; having the Sun, not in the centre 
of the ellipse, but in one of its foci. 



What is meant by the expression, equation of time ? Tlluttrate the difference betteten 
mean and apparent time by reference to Fig. 1 1 . What u the figure of the orbit« of th« 
DUmets ? In what point of the orbits is the Sun situated ? 



TOE EARTH. 



207 




The figure A D B E is an ellipse. The hne 
A B is called the transverse axis, and the line 
drawa through the middle of this line, and per- 
pendicular to it, is the conjugate axis. The 
point C, the middle of the transverse axis, is 
— the centre of the ellipse. Tiie points F and f. 
■B equally distant from C, are called the/oci. C 
F, the distance from the centre to one of the 
foci, is called the eccentricity. The orbits ol 
the planets being ellipses, having the Sun in 
one of the foci, if A 1) B E be the orbit of a 
planet, with the Sun in the focus F, when the 
planet is at the point A, it will be in its peri- 
helion, or nearest the Sun ; and when at the point B in its aphelion, or at its 
ereatest distance from the Sun. The difference in these distances is evident 
fy equal to F f that is, equal to twice the eccentricity of its orbit. In every re- 
volution, a planet passes through its perihelion and aphelion. The eccentri- 
city of the Earth's orbit is about one and a half millions of miles ; bence she 
three miUions of miles nearer the Sun in her perihelion, than in her aphe- 
lion. 

Now as the Sun remains fixed in the lower focus of the Earth's orbit, it is 
easy to perceive that a line, passing centrally through the Sun at right angles 
with the longer a.xis of the orbit, will divide it into two unequal segments. 
Precisely thus it is divided by the equinoctial. 

That portion of the Earth's orbit which lies above the 
Sua, or north of the equinoctial, contains aboui ] 84 degrees ; 
while that portion of it which lies helow the Sun, or south 
of the equinoctial, contains only 176 degrees. This fact 
shows why the Sun continues about 8 days longer on the 
north side of the equator in summer, than it does on the 
south side in winter. The exact calculation, for the year 
1830, is as follows : 

d. h. m. 
From the vernal equinox to the summer solstice, =92 21 19 
From the summer solstice to the autumnal equinox, =93 14 1 
From the autumnal equinox to the winter solstice, =S9 17 17 
From the wnter solstice to the vernal equinox, =89 1 13 

Difference in favour of the north side, = 7, 16, 49. 

The points of the Earth's orbit which correspond to its greatest and least 
distances from the Sun. are called, the former the Apogee, and the la;ter the 
Perigee; two Greek words, the former of which signifies /ro?n the Earth, 
and llie latter about the Earth. These points are also designated by the 
common name of Apsides. [See these points represented, Plate /.] 

The Earth being in its perihelion about the the 1st of Janu- 
ary, and in its aphelion the 1st of July, we are three millions 
of miles nearer the Sun in winter than in midsummer. The 
reason why we have not, as might be expected, the >iottest 
weather when the Earth is nearest the Sun, is, because the 



I d. 


h. m. 


S 183,11,19. 


} d. 


h. m. 


S 17B, 


18, 30. 



What is the eccentricity of an orbit 7 Ho^o many times is a planet in Us aphe- 
lion, and hjw many in its perihelion, in every revolution 7 Hma much farther 
is it from the Sun in the former case than in the latter ? In which foc-w of the 
Earth's orbit is the Sun? Hoio does the equinoctial divide the Earth's orbit? 
\Vhy doe.^ the Sun remain longer on the north side of the equator in summer, than ;t doea 
on the south side in winter ? What are the Earth's Apogee and Perigee? By lohat 
common name are these tioo points designated 7 When is the Earth in its PeriDelion i 
When in its Aphelion? Are we nearer the Sun in summer than in winter? How inicb 
nearer are we in wnterthan in summer? Why do we not have the hottest wea) ho 
when we are nearest the Sun? 



208 THE MOON. 

Sun, at that ume, having retreated to the southern tropic, 
shines so obliquely on the northern hemisphere, that its rays 
have scarcely half the effect of the sunrimer Sun ; and con- 
tinuing but a short lime above the horizon, less heat is ac- 
cumulated by day than is dissipated by night. 

As the Earth performs its annual revolution around the 
Sun, the position of its axis remains invariably the same ; 
always pointing to the North Pole of the heavens, and al- 
ways maintaining the same inclination to its orbit. This 
seems to be providentially ordered for the benefit of man- 
kind. If the axis of the Earth always pointed to the centre 
of its orbit, all external objects would appear to whirl about 
our heads in an inexplicable maze. Nothing would appear 
permanent. The mariner could no longer direct his course 
by the stars, and every index in nature would mislead us. 



THE MOON. 



There is no object within the scope of astronomical ob- 
servation which affords greater variety of interesting inves- 
tigation than the various phases and motions of the Moon. 
From them the astronomer ascertains the form of the Earth, 
the vicissitudes of the tides, the causes of eclipses and oc- 
cultations, the distance of the Sun, and, consequently, the 
magnitude of the solar system. These phenomena, which 
are perfectly obvious to the unassisted eye, served as a stand- 
ard of measurement to all nations, until the advancement 
of science taught them the advantages of solar time. It is 
to these phenomena that the navigator is indebted for that 
precision of knowledge which guides him with well grounded 
confidence through the pathless ocean. 

The Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, and, in general, 
all the ancients, used to assemble at the time of new or full 
Moon, to discharge the duties of piety and gratitude for her 
unwearied attendance on the Earth, and all her manifold 
uses. 

When the Moon, after having been in conjunction with 
the Sun, emerges from his rays, she first appears in the 
evening, a little after sun-set, like a fine luminous crescent, 
with its convex side towards the Sun. If we observe her 

\s the Earth revolves about the Sun, what is the position of ita axis ? Should ita axis 
always point to the centre of its orbit, how would external objects-appear tn us ? What 
important purposes does the Moon serve fo the astronomer ? Of what importance are her 
phenomena to the navigator? What nations used to assemble at the time of the new or 
of the full Moon , to express their gratitude for her benefits 7 Describe the apierent motkn 
•f the Moon, and her phases. 



TEE MOON. «i09 

the neyt evening, we find her about 13° farther east of the 
Sun than on the preceding evening, and her crescent of light 
sensibly augmented. Repeating these observations, we per- 
ceive that she departs farther and farther from the Sun, as 
her enlightened surface comes more and more into view, un- 
til she arrives at her Jirst quarter, and comes to the meridian 
at sun-set. She has then finished half her course from the 
new to the full, and half her enlightened hemisphere is turn- 
ed towards the Earth. 

After her first quarter, she appears more and more gib- 
bous, as she recedes farther and farther from the Sun. until 
she has completed just half her revolution around the Earth, 
and is seen rising in the east when the Sun is settingin the 
west. She then presents her enlightened orb full to oui 
view, and is said to be in opposition ^ because she is then 
Oil uie opposite side of the Earth with respect to the Sun. 

In the first half of her orbit she appears to pass over om 
heads through the upper hemisphere; she now descends be- 
low the eastern horizon to pass through that part of her or- 
bit which lies in the lower hemisphere. 

After her full she wanes through the same changes of ap- 
pearance as before, but in an inverted order; and we see hei 
in the morning like a fine thread of light, a little west of the 
rising-sun. For the next two or three days she is lost to 
our view, rising and setting in conjunction with the Sun ; 
after which, she passes over, by reason of her daily motion, 
to the east side of the Sun, and we behold her again a new 
Moon, as before. In changing sides with the Sun, she 
changes also the direction of her crescent. Before her con- 
junction, it was turned to the east; it is now turned towards 
the west. These ditferent appearances of the Moon are 
called h.e.v phases. They prove that she shines not by any 
light of her own ; if she did, being globular, we should al- 
ways see her a round full orb like the Sun. 

The Moon is a satellite to the Earth, about which she re- 
volves in an elliptical orbit, in 29 days, 12 hours, 44 min- 
utes, and 3 seconds: the time which elapses between one 
new moon and another. This is called her synodic revo- 
lution. Her revolution from any fixed star to the same stat 
again, is called her periodic or siderial revolution, it is 
accomplished in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and ll^-sec- 
onds ; but in this time, the Earth has advanced nearly as 
many degrees in her orbit; consequently the Moon, at the 

Ho-,v i3 it kno^vn that the Moon does not shine by her o\vn light 1 About what does the 
Moon revolve, and what is the figure of her orbit ? What is the time of her revoluUoa 
trom one new Moon to another ? What is this revolution denominated? What is h^r pe- 
nodic or sidereal revolution ? In what time is this accomplished ? 

18* 



210 THE MOON. 

end of one complete revolution, must go as many degrees 
fariher, before she will come agam into the same position 
with respect to the Sun and the Earth. 

The Moon is the nearest of all the heavenly bodies, being 
about 30 times the diameter of the Earth, or 240,000 miles, 
distant from us. Her mean daily motion, in her orbit, n 
nearly 14 times as great as the Earth's ; since she not only 
accompanies the Earth around the Sun every year, but, id 
the meantime, performs nearly 13 revolutions about the 
Earth. 

vlthough the apparent motion of the Moon, in her orbit, is greater than 
i:»at of any other heavenly body, since she passes over, at a mean rate, no 
less than 13° 10' 35" in a day ; yet this is to be understood as angular motion 
— raoticr. in a small orbit, and therefore embracing a great number of degrees, 
and but comparatively few miles. 

As the Moon, while revolving about the Earth, is carried 
with it at the same time around the Sun, her path is ex- 
tremely irregular, and very different from what it seems to 
be. Like a point in the wheel of a carriage, moving 
over a convex road, the Moon will describe a succession of 
epicycloidal curves, which are always concave towards the 
Sun ; not very unlike their presentation in the following 
figure. 

THE moon's motion. 
Fig. 12. 




To what is the difference of time in these two revolutions owinzJ How great is the 
distance of the Moon from the Earth, coRipared with that of the other heavenly borjes? 
What is her distance from us ? What is her motion in her orbit, compared with the 
Earth's ? How many times does she revolve around the Earth, every year? The appa- 
rent motion of the Moon is greater in her orb't than that of any other heavenly body ; 
U it to be understood that she passes through a correspondent space 7 Describe tha 
Moon's path. 



THE MOON. 211 

Lai Ad b B represent a portion of the Earth's orbit ; and abode thp 
Ulnar orbit. When the Earth is at b, the new Moon is at n; and while the 
Earth is moving from b lo its position as represented in the figure, the Moon 
has moved through half her orbit, from a to c, where she is full ; so while 
the Earth is moving from its present position to d, the Moon describes the 
other half of her orbit from c to e; where she is again in conjuncrion. 

The Moon, though apparently as large as the Sun, is the 
smallest of all the hea^^enlv' hodies that are visible to the 
naked eye. Her diameter is but 2162 miles ; consequently 
her surface is 13 times less than that of the Earth, and her 
bulk 49 times less. It would require 70 millions of such 
bodies to equal the volume of the Sud. The reason why 
she appears as large as the Sun, when, in truth, she is so 
much less, is because she is 400 times nearer to us than the 
Sun. 

The Moon revolves once on her axis exactly in the time 
that she performs her revolution around the Earth. This 
is evident from her always presenting the same side to the 
Earth ; for if she had no rotation upon an axis, every part 
of her surface would be presented to a spectator on the 
Earth, in the course of her synodical revolution. It follows, 
then, that there is but 07ie day and night in her year^ con- 
taining, both together, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 
seconds. 

As the Moon turns on her axis only as she moves around 
the Earth, it is plain that the inhabitants of one half of the 
lunar world are totally deprived of the sight of the Earth, 
unless they travel to the opposite hemisphere. This we 
may presume they will do, were it only to view so sublime 
a spectacle ; for it is certain that from the Moon the Earth 
appears ten times larger than any other body in the universe. 

As the Moon enlightens the Earth, by reflecting the light 
of the Sun, so likewise the Earth illuminates the Moon, ex- 
hibiting to her the same phases that she does to us, only in 
a contrary order. And, as the surface of the Earth is 13 
times as large as the surface of the Moon, the Earth, when 
full to the Moon, will appear 13 times as large as the full 
moon does to us'. That side of the Moon, therefore, which 
is towards the Earth, may be said to have no darkness at all, 
the Earth constantly shining upon it with extraordinary 
splendour wnen the Sun is absent ; it therefore enjoys suc- 
cessively two weeks of illumination from the Sun, and two 

What is her magnitude, compared with that of the other heavenly bodies ? What is her 
diameter? How great are her surface and her bulk, compared with those of the Earth? 
How many such bodies would it require to equal the volume of the Sun ? Why does she 
appear as large as the Sun^ when in reality she is so much less ? What is the time of her 
revolution on her axis, compared with that of her revolution around the Earth ? How ia 
this proved ? How many days and nights then has she in the course of her synodical re- 
volution ? Wliat is the length of both united ? Describe the phenomena of the Earth aa 
•een by the inhabitants of the Moon. 



SJ2 THE MOUN. 

Nveeks of earth-light from the Earth. The other side of the 
Moon has alternately a fortnight's light, and a fortnight's 
darkness. 

As the Earth revolves on its axis, the several continents, 
seas, and islands, appear to the lunar inhabitants like so 
many spots, of different forms and brightness, alttrnately 
moving over its surface, being more or less brilliant, as they 
are seen through intervening clouds. By these spots, the 
lunarians can not only determine the period of the Earth's 
rotation, just as we do that of the Sun, but they may also 
find the longitude of their places, as we find the latitude ol 
ours. 

As the full Moon always happens when the Moon is di- 
rectly opposite the Sun, all the full Moons in our wiiiter; 
must happen when the Moon is on the north side of the equi- 
noctial, because then the Sun is on the south side of it ; con- 
sequently, at the north pole of the Earth, there will be a 
fortnight's moon-iight and a fortnight's darkness by turns, 
for a period of six months, and the same will be the fact du- 
ring the Sun's absence the other six months, at the south 
pole. 

The Moon's axis being inclined only about 1^° to her 
orbit, she can have no sensible diversity of seasons ; from 
which we may infer, that her atmosphere is mild and uni- 
form. The quantity of light which we derive from the Moon 
when full, is at least 300 thousand times less than that of 
the Sun.* 

When viewed through a good telescope, the Moon pre- 
sents a most wonderful and interesting aspect. Besides the 
large dark spots, which are visible to the naked eye, we 
perceive extensive valleys, shelving rocks, and long ridges 
of elevated mountains, projecting their shadows on the 
plains below. Single mountains occasionally rise to a great 
height, while circular hollows, more than three miles deep, 
"eem excavated in the plains. 

Her mountain scenery bears a striking resemblance to the 
towering sublimity and terrific ruggedness of the Alpine re- 

* This ia Mons. Bouqaer's inference, from his experiments, as stated by La Place, in 
his work, p. 42. The result of Dr. Wollaston's (Computations was difterent Profes.«oi 
Leslie makes the light of the Moon 150,000 times less than that of the Sun: it was former- 
'y reckoned 100,000 times less. 

As the Earth revolves on its axis, how do its continents, seas, and islands, appear to 
the lunar inhabitHnts ? For what purposes may the.se spots serve to the lunarian.s ? What 
ire the periods of the Moon's presence and absence to the polar inhabitants ? Explain 
this. Why cannot the Moon have any sensible diversity of seasons ? What then may 
we infer to be the character of her atmosphere? What is the quantity of light which 
Bha affords when full, compared with that of the Sun ? Descnbe the appearance of Hie 
Moon when seen through a good telescope. What mountains of llie Earth does hei 
mountain scenery resemble 7 



THE MOON. 2n 

g'lons, or of the Appenines, after which some of her raoiin- 
tains have been named, and of the Cordilleras of our own 
continent. Huge masses of rock rising precipitously from 
the plains, lift their peaked summits to an immense height 
in the air, while shapeless crags hang over their projecting 
sides, and seem on the eve of being precipitated into the 
tremendous chasm below. 

Around the base of these frightful eminences, are strewed 
numerous loose and unconnected fragments, which time 
seems to have detached from their parent mass ; and when 
we examine the rents and -ravines which accompany the 
overhanging cliffs, the beholder expects every moment that 
they are to be torn from their base, and that the process of 
destructive separation which he had only contemplated in 
its effects, is about to be exhibited before him in all its 
reality. 

The range of mountains called the Appenines, which tra- 
verses a portion of the Moon's disc from north-east to south- 
west, and of which some parts are visible to the naked eye, 
rise with a precipitous and craggy front from the level of 
the Mare Imbrium, or Sea of showers.* In this extensive 
range are several ridges whose summits have a perpendicu- 
lar elevation of four miles, and more ; and though they 
often descend to a much lower level, they present an inac- 
cessible barrier un the north-east, while on the south-west 
they sink in gentle declivity to the plains. 

There is one remarkable feature in the Moon's surface 
which bears no analogy to any thing observable on the 
Earth. This is the circular cavities v/hich appear in every 
part of her disc. Some of these immense caverns are nearly 
four miles deep, and forty miles in diameter. They are 
most numerous in the south-western part. As they reflect 
the Sun's rays more copiously, they render this part of her 
surface more brilliant than any other. They present to 
us nearly the same appearance as our Earth might be sup- 
posed to present to the Moon, if all our great lakes and seas 
were dried up. 

The number of remarkable spots on the Moon, wliv_"e 
latitude and longitude have been accurately determined, 
exceeds 200. The number of seas and lakes, as they were 
formerly considered, whose length and breadth are known, 

* The name of a lunar spot. 

Describe the appearance of her mountains. On what part of her disc is that range of 
mountains called the Appenines, situated ? Describe it. What remarkable feature in the 
Moon's surface, bears no analogy to any thing observable on the Earth's siuface? Describe 
their appearance. What is the number of remarkable spots in the Moon's surface, whose 
latitude and longitude have been accurately determined ? What is the number of seas and 
lakes, as they were fcriperly considered, whose dimensions are known ' 



214 THE M0O:V. 

is between 20 and 30 ; while the number of peaks and 
mountains, whose perpendicular elevation varies from a 
fourth of a mile to five miles in height, and whose bases 
are from one to seventy miles in length, is not less than one 
hundred and fifty.* 

Graphical views of these natural appearances, accompanied with minute 
and familiar descriptions, constitute wiiat is called Selenography, from two 
Greek words, which mean the same thing in regard to the Moon, a& Geog- 
raphy does in regard to the Eanh. 

An idea of some of these scenes may he formed by con- 
ceiving a plain of about 100 miles in circumference, encircled 
by a range of mountains, of various forms, three miles in 
perpendicular height, and having a mountain near the 
centre, whose top reaches a mile and a half above the level 
of the plain. From the top of this central mountain, the 
whole plain, with all its scenery, would be distinctly visible, 
and the view would be bounded only by a lofty amphitheatre 
of mountains, rearing their summits to the sky. 

The bright spots of the Moon are the mountainous 
regions ; while the dark spots are the plains, or more 
level parts of her surface. There may be rivers or small 
lakes on this planet ; but it is generally thought, by astrono- 
mers of the present day, that Ihere are no seas or large col- 
lectiOi.:<? of water, as was formerly supposed. Some of 
these mo mtains and deep valleys are visible to the naked 
eye ; and m ny more are visible through a telescope of but 
moderate poAvjrs. 

A telescope which magnifies only 100 times, will show a 
spot on the Moon's surface, whose diameter is 1223 yards ; 
and one which magnifies a thousand times, will enable us 
to perceive any enlightened object on her surface whose di- 
mensions are only 122 yards, which does not much exceed 
the dimensions of some of our public edifices, as for instance, 
the Capitol at Washington, or St. Paul's Cathedral. Pro- 
fessor Frauenhofer, of Munich, recently announced that he 
had discovered a lunar edifice, resembling 3. fortijicationj 
together with several lines of rond. The celebrated as- 
tronomer Schroeter, conjectures the existence of a great 

* Prewster's Selenography. The test maps of the 31oon hitherto published, are those 
by Schroeter ; but the most curious and complete representation of the telescopic and na- 
tural appearances of the Moon, is to be seen on Russel's Lunar Globe. See also Selene^ 
graphic, by C. Blunt. 

"What is the number of pealcs and mountains whose perpendicular elevation varies from 
a fourth of a mile to fiie miles, and whose bases are from one to seventy miles in leneth ) 
What is Selenography ) Give an illustration to enable us to form some idea of some of 
these scenes. Which spots are the mountainous regions, and which the plains? Do as- 
tronomers now suppose, as they did formedy, that there are large collections of water on 
the Moon's surface ? Are any of her mountains and valleys visible to the naki^d eye ^ 
How small a spot on the Moon's surface can \yi se«'n by a telescope which majfnifies 100 
times ? How small an enlightened object can l)e seen by one which magnifies 1000 tiroes} 
M'">tion any public edifices which are of nearly the same dimensions 



ECLIPSES. 21(> 

City on the east side of the Moon, a little north of her equator, 
Rii extensive canal in another place, and fields of vegeta- 
.lon in another. 



SOLAR AND LUNAll ECLIPSES. 

Of all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none 
rkich engage the attention of mankind more than eclipses 
;f the Sun and Moon; and to those who are unacquainted 
\vith astronomy, nothing appears more wonderful than the 
accuracy with which they can be predicted. In the early 
iges of antiquity they were regarded as alarming devia- 
dons from the established laws of nature, presaging great ' 
public calamities, and other tokens of the divine displeasure. 

In China, the prediciion and observance of eclipses are made a matter of 
state policy, in order to operate upon the fears of the ignorant, and impose on 
them a superstitious regard for the occult wisdom of their rulers. In Mexico, 
the natives fast and afflict themselves, during eclipses, under an apprehen- 
sion that the great spirit is in deep sutFerance. Some of the northern tribes 
cf Indians have imagined that tlie Moon had been wounded in a quarrel ; and 
others, that she was" about to be swallowed by a huge fish. 

It was by availing himself of these superstitious notions, that Columbus, 
when shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica, extricated himself and crew 
from a most embarrassing condition. Being driven to great distress for want 
of provisions, and the natives refusing him any assistance, virhen all hope seem- 
ed to be cut off, he betfiought himself of their superstition in regard to 
eclipses. Having assembled the principal men of the island, he remonstrated 
against their inhumanity, as being offensive to the Great Spirit ; and told them 
that a great plague was even ready to fall upon them, and as a token of it, they 
would that night see the Moon hide her face in anger, and put on a dreadfully 
dark and theatening aspect. This artifice had the desired eflfect ; for the 
eclipse had no sooner begun, than the frightened barbarians came running 
with all kinds of provisions, and throwing themselres at the feet of Columbus 
implored his forgiveness. — Almagest, Vol. I. 55 c v. 2. 

An eclipse of the Sun takes place, when the dark body 
of the Moon, passing directly between the Earth and the 
iSun, intercepts his light. This can happen only at the in- 
stant of new Moon, or when the Moon is in conjunction ; for 
It is only then that she passes between us and the Sun. 

An eclipse of the Moon takes place when the dark boJy ot 
the Earth, coming between her and the Sun, intercepts his 
light, and throws a shadow on the Moon. This can happen 
only at the time of full Moon, or when the Moon is in oppo- 
sition ; for it is only then that the Earth is between her 
and the Sun. 

As every planet belonging to the solar system, both prl- 

How were eclipses regarded in llie early ages of antiquity? To what purpose do the 
'■ulers of China make their prediction and observance subservient 7 Hoto do the 
natives of Mexico demean tliemselves during an eclipse? Why do they do this? 
Mliat notions have some of the northern trihKs of Indians entertained xoith regard 
to eclipse? of the Moon ? Re/"te the anecdote of Columbus extricating- hi, '"elf and 
kis creipfrom distress, by ava^"i»g himself of the superstitious notions ^ the na- 
tives of Jamaica in regard to eUij^es. What causes eclipses of the Sun ? Wi\ t catisei 
*cJipses of rhe Mooa ? 



2 Id ECLIPSES. 

mary and secondary, derives its light from the Sun, it most 
cast a shadow towards that part of the heavens which is op- 
posite to the Sun. This shadow is of course nothing but 
a privation of light in the space hid from ihe Sun by the 
opaque body, and will always be proportioned to the mag- 
nitude of ihe Sun and planet. 

If the Sun and planet were both of the same magnitude, 
the form ot the shadow cast by the planet, would be that of 
a cylinder,' and of the same diameter as the Sun or planet. 
If the planet were larger than the Sun, the shadow would 
continually diverge, and grow larger and larger ; but as the 
Sun is much larger than any of the planets, the shadows 
which they cast must converge to a point in the form of a 
cone, the length of which will be proportional to the size 
and distance of the planet from the Sun. 

The magnitude of the Sun is such, that the shadow cast by each of the 
primary planets always converges to a point before it reaches any other 
planet ; so that not one of the primary planets can echpse another. The 
shadow of any planet which is accompanied by satellites, may, on certain 
occasions, eclipse its satellites; but it is not long enough ro eclipse any 
©ther body. The shadow of a satellite, or Moon, may also, on certain occa- 
eions, fall on the primary, and eclipse it. 

When the Sun is at his greatest distance from the Earth, 
and the Moon at her least distance, her shadow is suffi- 
ciently long to reach the Earth, and extend 19.000 miles 
beyond. When the Sun is at his least distance from the 
Earth, and the Moon at her greatest^ her shadow will not 
reach the Earth's surface by 20.000 miles. So that when 
the Sun and Moon are at their mean distances, the cone oi 
the Moon's shadow will terminate a little before it reaches 
the Earth's surface. 

In the former case, if a conjunction take place when the 
centre of the Moon comes in a direct line between the 
centres of the Sun and Earth, the dark shadow of the Moon 
will fall centrally upon the Earth, and cover a circular area 
of 175 miles in diameter. To all places lying within this dark 
spot, the Sun will be totally eclipsed, as illustrated by Fig. 13. 

In consequence of the Earth's motion during the eclipse, this circular area 
becomes a continued belt over the earth's surface ; being, at the broadest, 

In what direction does every planet of the solar system cast a shadow? Vhat is this 
shadow, and to what is it proportional ? If the Sun and planet were both of the same 
magnitude, what would be the form of th^ shadow, and its diameter ? If the planet wore 
larger than the Sun, what would be the torm of the shadow ? Rut as the Sun is much 
larger than any of the planets, what must be the form of 'heir shadows, and to what are 
they proportional ? Why can no one of the 'primary p/anets echpse another? Ex- 
plain ho^o, on certain occasions, they may eclipse their satellites, and on others bt 
eclipsed hy them. When the Sun is at his greatest distance from the Earth, and ths 
Moon at her least diiitance, bow far will her shadow extend ? When the Sun is at his 
least distance, and the Moon at her greatest 1 When the Sun and Moon are both at theii 
mean distances ? In the first case, in what circumstances will the Moon's shadow falJ 
wntraliy on the Earth, and what will be its figure and diameter ? How will the Sun ap 
uear to all places lying within this dark spot ? Deacribethe effect of the Earth's motion, 
during the eclipse, upon this circular area. 



ECLIPSES. 



217 



175 miles wide. This belt is, however, rarely so broad, and iiften dwindles 
to a mere nominal line, without total darkness. 

In March, this line extends itself from S. W. to N. E., and in Seplember, 
from N. W. to S. E. In June, the cenlral line is a cui^e, going first to the 
N. E., and then to the S. E.; in December, on the conti-ary, first to the S. 
E., and then to the N. E. To all places within 2000 miles, at least, of the 
central line, the echpse will be visible ; and the nearer the place of obser- 
ration is to the line, the larger will be the eclipse. In winter, if the central 
trace be but a little northward of the equator, and in summer, if it be 25° 
N. latitude, the eclipse will be visible all over the northern hemispheie. 
A.S a general rule, though liable to many modifications, we may observe, 
that places from 200 to 250 miles from the central fine, will be 11 digits 
*clipsed; from thence to 500 miles, 10 digits ; and so on, diminishing one digit 
Ji about 250 miles. 

ECLIPSES OF THE SUN. 

Fig. la 




If, in either of the other cases, a con- 
junction take place when the Moon's 
centre is directly between the centres 
of the Sun and Earth, as before, the 
Moon will then be too distant to cover 
the entire face of the Sun, and there 
will be seen, all around her dark body, 
a slender ring of dazzling light. 

This may be illustrated by the adjoining fig- 
are. Suppose C D to represent a part of the 
Earth's orbit, and the Moon's shadow to termi- 
nate at the vertex V. The small space between 
e/will represent the breadth of the luminous 
ring which will be visible all around the dark 
body of the Moon. 

S'lch was the echpse of February 12, 1831, 
which passed over the southern states from 
S. W. to N. E. It was the only annular eclipse 
ever visible in the United States. Along the 
path of this eclipse, the luminous ring remained 
perfect and unbroken for the space of two min- 
utes. The next annular eclipse which will be 
visible to any considerable portion of the Uni- 
ted States, will take place Sept. 18th, 1833. ^ 

From the most elaborate calculations, compar- 
ed with a long series of observations, the length 
of the Moon's shadow in eclipses, and her dis- 
tance from the Sun at the same time, vary with- ^ , 
in the limits of the following table : *• 




Fig.M 



■•••"■H 



In either of the other cases, the same circumstances occurring as before, what will be 
the appearance of the Sun ? Why does not the IMoon, in this case, cause a total eclipsQj 
When did the only eclipse of this kind, ever visible in the United States, happen 7 Hoif 
long did the luminoits ring, along its path, remain unbroken 7 When loill the next 
annular eclipse, visible H any conaiderdble portion of the United States, happeni 

19 



118 



Length of shadow, Length of shadow in | Length 
Dist. of Moon. Semidiaraoters. 1 in miles. 


Distance in Distance 
Semidiameters. in mile*. 

1 


Least 

Mean 

Greatest 


57.760X3956= 
5a 728X3956= 
59. 730 y 3956= 


22a499 
232.328 
236.292 


55.902X3956= 
60 238X3956= 
63.862X3956= 


221,148 
238,300 
252,633 



Thus it appears that the length of the cone of tlie Moon's sliadow, in 
eclipses, varies from 228,499 to 236,292 miles ; being 7.793 iniles longer in th« 
»ne case, than in the other. The inequality of her distances from the Karth 
is much greater ; they vary from 221,148 to 252,638 miles, making a differenc* 
of 31,490 miles. 

Although a central eclipse of the Sun can never be total 
to any spot on the Earth more than 175 miles broad; yet 
the space over which the Sun will be more or less partially 
eclipsed, is nearly 5000 miles broad. 

The section of the Moon's .shadow, or her penumbra, at the Earth's sur- 
face, in eclipses, is far from being always circular. If the conjunction hap- 
pen when the centre of the Moon is a little above or a little below the line 
joining the centres of the Earth and Sun, as is most frequently the case, 
the shadow will be projected obliquely over the Earth's surface, and thus 
cover a much larger space. 

To produce a partial eclipse, it is not necessary that the shadow should reach 
the Earth ; it is sufficient that the apparent distance between the Sun and 
Moon be not greater than the sum of their semidiameters. 

If the Moon performed her revolution in the same path in 
which the Sun appears to move ; in other words, if her orbit 
lay exactly in the plane of the Earth's orbit, the Sun would 
be eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon 
at the time of every full. But one half of the Moon's orbit 
lies about 5° on the north side of the ecliptic, and the other 
half as far on the south side of it; and, consequently, the 
Moon's orbit only crosses the Earth's orbit in two opposite 
points, called the Moon's nodes. 

When the Moon is in one of these points, or nearly so, at 
the time of new Moon, the Sun will be eclipsed. When 
she is in one of them, or nearly so, at the time of full Moon, 
the Moon will be eclipsed. But at all other new Moons, 
the Moon either passes above or below the Sun, as seen 
from the Earth; a'.d, at all other full Moons, she either 

f (asses above or be' jw the Earth's shadow ; and consequent- 
y there can be no eclipse. 



What are the limits between which the Moon's shadoio varies in eclipses? What 
Is the dijfcren ce betioeen these ttoo liynits ? What are the limiis of her distances from 
the Earch? Hliat is the diffeience between tliem ? AVhat is tho greatest breadth of 
any spot on the Earth's surface, to wliich a central eclipse of the Sun can be total ? What 
is the breadth of the greatest space over which the Sun can be more or less partially eclipsed) 
Is the penumbra of the Moon at the Earth's surface in eclipses ahoays cii cular / In 
whMt circumstances xoill the shadow be projfcted obliqurhj over the Earth's surface 7 
Must the shadoic reach the Earth, to produce a partial e^ipse 7 What is the great- 
eat apparent distance between the Sun and Monn, ivithi* which such a res^ilt vnU 
take place? Why is not the Sun eclipsed at the time of every new Moon, and the Moon 
at every full ? In wtiat circumstances will an eclipse of the Sun, and in what ao eciipa* 
of the Moon, happen? 



ECLIPSIiW*. 219 

If the Moon be exactly m one of her nodes at the lime of 
her change, the Sun will be centrally eclipsed. If she be 
\^° from her node at the time of her change, the Sun Tvill 
appear at the equator to be about 11 digits eclipsed. If 
she be 3'^ from her node at the time of her change, the Sun 
will be 10 digits eclipsed, and so on ; a digit being the tAvelfth 
part of the Sun's diameter. But when the Moon is about 18° 
from her node, she will just touch the outer edge of the Sun, 
at the time of her change, without producing any eclipse. 
These are called the eclipticlimits. Between these limits, 
an eclipse is doubtful, and requires a more exact calcula- 
tion. 

The mean ecliptic limit for the Sun is 16i° on each side of the node ; the 
mean ecliptic limit for the Moon is ]0|° on each side of the node. In the 
former case, then, there are 33° about'each node, making, in all, 66° out of 
360°, in whicli eclipses of the Sun may liappen; in ilie latter case, there 
are 21° about each node, making, in all. 42° out of 360° in which eclipses of 
the Moon usually occur. The proportion of the solar, to the lunar eclipses, 
therefore, is as 66 to 42, or as 11 to 7. Yet, there are more visible eclipses 
of the Moon, at any given place, than of tlie Sun, because a lunar eclipse 
is visible to a whole heaiisphere, a solar eclipse only to a small portion of it. 

The greatest possible duration of the annular appearance 
of a solar eclipse, is 12 minutes and 24 seconds ; and the 
greatest possible time during which the Sun can be totally 
eclipsed, to any part of the world, is 7 minutes and 58 
seconds. The Moon may continue totally eclipsed for one 
hour and three quarters. 

Eclipses of the Sun always begin on his western edge, 
and end on his eastern ; but all eclipses of the Moon com- 
mence on her eastern edge, and end on her western. 

If the Moon, at the time of her opposition, be exactly in her 
node, she will pass through the centre of the Earth's shadow, 
and be totally eclipsed. If, at the time of her opposition, 
she be within 6° of her node, she will still pass through the 
Earth's shadow, though not centrally, and be totally eclipsed : 
but if she be 12° from her node, she will only just touch the 
Earth's shadow, and pass it without being eclipsed. 

The duration of lunar eclipses, therefore, depends upon the difference 
between the diameter of the Moon and that section of the Earth's shadow 

In what circumstances is the Sun centrally eclipsed ? What is the ratio between the 
Moon's distance from her node, and the number of digits that the Sun is eclipsed 1 V.'hat 
ire these limits called? Will there always be eclipses when the Moon is within these 
emits? What is the ecliptic limit for the Sun? What is it for the Moon? What 
number of degrees, then, are there about each node, and how many out o/360°. in 
'.oiiich solar eclipses can happen 7 Hoia many in ichich lunar eclipses tisna"y hap- 
pen ? W/iat then is the proportion of the solar to the lunar eclipses ? Why then are 
there more eclipses if the Moon visible at any given place than of the Hun 1 What 
is the greatest possible duration of the annular appearance of a solar eclipse? What ig 
..he greatest possible duration of a total solar eclipse to any pnrt of the world? What is 
the greatest duration of a rotal lunar eclipse ? On wliich side of the >un do solar eclipses 
always begin, and on whicii d(j they end? On which side of the .^loon do lunar eclipses 
always begin, and on whi'^,h do they end? In what circamsfanccs is the .Aloon totally 
eclipsed ? Beyond what distance from hf-r node, if she be, will she only touch the Earth's 
»hadc w. and not be eclipsed ? On what then does the durati'ni of lunar eclipses depend' 



S20 



ECLIPSES. 



through which she passes. When an eclipse of the Moon is both total and 
central, its duration is the longest possible, amountintr nearly to 4 hours 
but the duration of all eclipses not central varies with her distance frou) 
the node. 

ECLirSES OF THE MOON. 

Fig. 15. 




The diameter of the Earth's shadow, at the distance of 
the Moon, is nearly three times as large as the diameter of the 
Moon; and the length of the Earth's shadow is nearly four 
times as great as the distance of the Moon; exceeding it ic 
the same ratio that the diameter of the Earth does the diame 
ter of the Moon, which is as 3.663 to 1. 



The length of the Earth's sliadow, and its diameter at 
the distance of the Moon, are subject to the variations 
exhibited in the following table. 



Sun at the perigee 



Bun at his mean distance 



Sun at the apogee 



( Moon at the apogee 
J Moon at her mean distance 
( Moon at the perigee 
C Moon at the apogee 

< Moon at her mean distance 
( Moon at the perigee 

( Moon at the apogee 

< Moon at her mean distance 
( Mo on at the perigee 



Diameter j Length :i 

of the the shai- 

shadow. 1 ow in ms. 



5,232 
5,762 
6.292 
5.270 
5,709 
6.329 
5..306 
5.a36 
6.365 



The first column of figures expresses the diameter of the Eartli's shadow 
at the Moon : and as the diameter of the Moon is only 2162 miles, it is evident 
that it can always be comprehended by the shadow, which is more than twice 
as broad as the disc of the Moon. 

The time which elapses between two successive changes 
ol tne Moon is called a Lunation, which, at a mean rate, is 
about 29^ days. If 12 lunar months were exactly equal 
lo the 12 solar months, the Moon's nodes v/ould always 
occupy the same points in the ecliptic, and all eclipses 
would happen in the same months of the year, as is the 
case with the transits of Mercury and Venus : but, in 12 
lunations, or lunar months, iheie are only 354 days ; and 
in this time the Moon has passed through both her nodes, 

In what circumstances is the duration of thn lunar eclipse the longest possible t 
What is the length of the greatest duration of a lunar eclipse 7 With ichat does the 
duraticn of ecVvses, not central, vary ? What is the diameter of the Earth's shallow at 
the distance of the Moon ? What is the length of the Earth's shadow ? What is their 
latio to each other ? Beticeen lohai limits 'does the length of the Earth's shadoio, and 
its diameter at the distance of the Moon, vary 7 What is the hrec.dth nf the Earth'i 
ahadoto compared, with that of the disc of 'he Moon 7 Wliat is n Ic.iation ? Flow manj 
days does a lunation embrace 1 Why do not all eclipses happen in je aame montlisoi 
the year} 



ECLIPSES. 221 

bui has not quite accomplished her revolution arcund the 
Sun : the consequence is, that the Moon's nodes fail back 
in the ecliptic at the rate of about 19+° annually ; so tLac 
the eclipses happen sooner ever\' year by about 19 days. 

As the Moon passes from one of her nodes to the other 
in 173 days, there is just this period between two succes- 
sive eclipses of the Sun, or of the i\Ioon. In wiiatever time 
of the year, then, we have eclipses at either node, we may 
be sure that in 173 days afterwards, we shall have eclipses 
at the other node. 

As the Moon's nodes fall back, or retrograde in the ecliptic, at the rate of 
IQJ- every year, they will complete a backward revolution entirely around 
the ecliptic to the same point again, iu IS years, 225 days; in which tune 
tliere would always be a regular period of eclipses, if any complete number 
of lunations were finished without a remainder. But this never happens ; 
for if both the Sun and Moon should start from a line of conjunction with 
either of the nodes in any point of the ecliptic, the Sun would perform 18 
annual revolutions and 222^ of another, while the Moon would perform 
•23iJ lunations, and So^ of another, before the node would come around to the 
same point of the ecliptic again : so that the Sun would then be 138^ from the 
node, and the Moon 85° from the Sun. 

But after 223 lunations, or 18 years. 11 days.* 7 hours, 42 miniites, and 31 
seconds, the Sun. Moon, and Earth, wiU return so nearly iu the same position 
with respect to eacii other, that there will be a regular return of the same 
eclipses/or many ages. This grand period was discovered by the Chaldeans, 
and by them called Saros. If, therefore, to the mean time of any echpse, 
either of the Sun or Moon, we add the Chaldean period of 18 years and 11 
days, we shall have the return of the same eclipse. This mode of predict- 
ing eclipses will hold good for a thousand years. In this period there are 
usuadiy 70 eclipses ; 41 of the Sua, and 29 of the Moon. 

The number of eclipses in any one year, cannot be less 
than two, nor more than seven. In the former case, they 
will both be of the Sun ; and in the latter, there will be five 
of the Sun, and two of the Moon — those of the Moon will be 
total. There are sometimes six ; but the usual number is 
four: two of the Sun, and two of the Moon. 

The cause of this variety is thus accounted for. Although the Sun usually 
passes by both nodes only once in a year, he may pass the same node again 
a little before the end of the year. In consequence of the retrograde motion 

* If there aiefmir leap years in this interval, add 11 days ; but if there are Jive, add 
only ten days. 

How far do the Moon's nodes fall back in the ecliptic annually, and how much sooner 
do the eclipses happen every year? hi what time does the Moon pass from one of her 
aodes to the other 7 What is the length of the time wliich elapses tjehveen two successive 
eclipses of the Sun or the .Viooa? At^er there have been eclipses at one node, in what 
time may v.-e be sure that there will be eclipses at the other? In lohat time do the Mocm's 
nodes compiee a ixIciDard revolution around the ecliptic 7 Why is there not always 
a regular period of ecl'pse-" in this time 7 If the Sun and Moon shotild both start 
from a line of conjunction toith either node' hoio many revolutions icould the Sun 
Perform, and how many lunations the Moon, befre the node loould come around to 
he same point again 7 After hoiv many lunations loill the Sun, Moon, and Earthy 
eturn so nearly to the same position loith respect to each other, that th^re loill he 
% regular return of the same eclipses for many ages 7 Tl hat nation discovered this 
grand period, and what d>d they call it 7 What is the mode of predicting eclipses, 
with which this fac' furnishes its 7 Hoic many eclipses are there ■usually in this pe- 
riod 7 What is the least, and what the greatest numl>er of eclipses, in anyone year? la 
the former case, what eclipses will they be? What, in the latter? What is the usual 
number of eclipses in the year, and what echpses are they ? Please explain the cause qf 
ihis variety. 

19^ 



222 MARS. 

of the Moon's nodes, he will come to either of them 173 days after passinf 
ihe other. He may, therefore, return to the same node in about 346 days, 
having thus passed one node twice and the other once, making each time, at 
each, an eclipse of both the Sun and the Moon, or, six in all. And, sinci; I'J 
lunations, or 354 days from the ^7S^ eclipse in tiie beginning oi \.\\e year, 
leave room for another new Moon before the close of the vear, and sinc« 
this new Moon may fall within the ecliptic limit, it is possible for the sjiiu 
to be eclipsed again. Thus there may be se.ven echpses in the same year. 

Again: when the Moon changes in either of her nodes, she cannot come 
within the lunar ecliptic limit at the next full, (though if she he fuU'xn one 
of her nodes, she may come into the solar ecliptic Umit at her next change.) 
and six months afterwards, she will change near the other node; thus mak- 
ing only two eclipses. 

The following is a list, of all the solar eclipses that will be visible in Europe 
and America during the remainder of the present century. To those which 
will be visible in New-England, the number of digits is annexed. 



K-ear. 


Month 


Day & hour. 


Digits 


Year. 


Month 


Day and Hour. 


Digits 


1834, 


Nov. 


:30 1 22 P. M. 


'sT 


1869, 


Aug. 


7 


5 21 A. M. 


~m~ 


1P.T5. 


May 


15 7 25 A. M. 


1870, 


Dec. 


22 


6 A. M. 




1-S3S, 


Sept 


18 3 27 P. M. 


11 


1873, 


May 


26 


3 A. M. 




1841, 


July 


18 10 A. M. 




1874, 


Oct. 


10 


4 A. M. 




1&42, 


July 


8 Mer. 


2,^ 


1875, 


Sept. 


29 


5 56 A. M. 


Hi 


18^4, 


Dec. 


9 3 46 P. M. 


1876, 


Mar. 


25 


4 11 P. M. 


4 


1815, 


May 


6 4 55 A. M. 


^1 


1878, 


July 


■29 


4 56 P. M. 


"\ 


1846, 


Apr. 


25 11 15 A. M. 


1879, 


July 


19 


2 a. M. 




1847, 


Oct. 


9 1 A. M. 




1880, 


Dec. 


31 


7 .30 A. M. 


^ 


1848, 


Mar. 


5 7 .50 A. M. 


6- 

33 


1882, 


May 


17 


1 A. M. 




1851, 


July 


28 7 48 A. M. 


1885, 


Mar. 


16 


35 A. M. 


SI 


1854, 


May 


26 4 26 P. M. 


lis 

1 


1886, 


Aug. 


29 


6 30 A. M. 


1858, 


Mar. 


15 6 14 A. M. 


1887, 


Auir. 


18 


10 P. M. 




1859, 


July 


29 5 .32 P. M. 


2 


1890, 


June 


17 


3 A. M. 




1860, 


July 


18 7 2-3 A. M. 


6 


1891, 


June 


6 


Mer. 




1861, 


Dec. 


31 7 30 A. M. 


4 


1S92, 


Oct. 


20 


19 P. M. 


8.^ 


1863, 


May 


17 1 OP. M. 


1 


1895, 


Mar. 


26 


4 U A. M. 




1865, 


Oct. 


19 9 10 A. M. 


3f 


1896, 


Aug. 


9 


Mer. 




1866, 


Oct. 


8 U 12 A. M. 





1897, 


July 


29 


9 8 A. M. 


^i 


1867, 


Mar. 


6 3 A. M. 




1899, 


June 


8 


Mer. 




1868, 


Feb. 


23 10 A. M. 




1900, 


May 


28 


8 9 A. M. 


11 



The eclipses of 1838, 1854, 1869, 187.5, and 1900, will be very large. In those 
of 1845. 1858, 1861. 1373, 1875, and 1880. the Sun will rise eclipsed. 

In that of 1844, the Sun will set eclipsed. Tho.se of 1838, 18:>4, and 1875, wiH 
be annular. The scholar can continue this table, or extend it backwards, 
by adding or subtracting the Chaldean period of 18 years, 11 days, 7 hours, 
54 minutes, and 31 seconds. 



MARS. 

Mars is the first of the exterior planets, its orbit lying 
immediately without, or beyond.^ that of the Earth, while 
those of Mercury and Venus are ivithin. 

Mars appears to the naked eye, of a fine ruddy com- 
plexion ; resembling, in coloOr, and apparent magnitude, 
the star Antares, or Aldebaran, near which it frequently 
passes. It exhibits its greatest brilliancy about the time 

"What is the position of Mars in the solar sjsfem? Describe its appearance to the n» 
ked eye. When does ii exhibit its greatest brilliancy 1 



MARo. 223 

that It rises when the Sun sets, and sets when the Sun 
rises; because it is then nearest the Earth. It is leasi 
brilliant when it rises and sets with the Sun ; for then it is 
five times farther removed from us than in the formei case. 
Its distance from the Earth at its nearest approach is about 
50 millions of miles. Its greatest distance from us is aoout 
240 millions of miles. In the former case, it appears 
nearly 25 times larger than in the latter. When it rises 
before the Sun, it is our morning star ; when it sets aftei 
the Sun, it is our evening star. 

The distance of all the planets from the Earth, whether they be interior 
or exterior planets, varies within the hrnits of the diameters of their orbits ; 
for when a planet is in that point of its orbit which is nearest the Eazth, it 
is evidently nearer by the whole diameter of its orbit, than when it is in 
the opposite point, on the other side of its orbit. The apparent diameter of 
the planet will also vary for the same reason, and to the same degree. 

Mars is sometimes seen in opposition to the Sun, and 
sometimes in superior conjunction with him ; sometimes 
gibbous, but never horned. In conjunction, it is never 
seen to pass over the Sun's disc, like Mercury and Venus. 
This proves Dit only that its orbit is exterior to the Earth's 
orbit, but that it is an opaque body, shining only by the re- 
flection of the Sun. 

The motion of Mars through the constellations of the 
zodiac is but little more than half as great as that of the 
Earth ; it being generally about 57 days in passing over 
one sign, which is at the rate of a little more than half a 
degree each day. Thus, if we know what constellation 
Mars enters to day, we raav conclude that two months hence 
it will be in the next constellation ; four months hence, in the 
next : six months, in the next, and so on. 

Mars performs his revolution around the Sun in 1 year 
and lOt nionths, at the distance of 145 millions of miles; 
moving in its orbit at the mean rate of 55 thousand miles 
an Lour. Its diurnal rotation on its axis is performed in 
24 hours, 39 minutes, and 21^ seconds; which makes its 
day about 44 minutes longer than ours. 



vrhy is it most brilliant at this time? What are its least and greatest distances from 
us 7 How much larger does it appear in the former case than in the latter? Wiihin 
what liniis does the dismnce of all the planets from the Earth vary3 With 
lohat does the apparent diameter of a planet vary 7 What moon-like phases has 
Mars ? What does the fact, that it never assumes the crescent form at its coniunctidn, 
prove.- in rerard to its situation ? How do we know it to be ooaque ? Vv hat is the rate 
ot it? motion through tho constellations of the zodiac, compared with thnt of the Earth ? 
How long is it in passing- over one sign ? At what rate per day i> this 7 How, then, if we 
knou- [t\ what constellation it is at any one time, may we determine in what constellation 
it will be ;it any subseqient time ? In what time does it perform its revolution around the 
Sun ? '^'hat is its distance from the Sun ? What is the mean rat« of its motion in its or- 
bit per hour ? In what time does it perform its revolution on its axis ? What, then, is the 
length of its day, compared with that of the Earth ? 



224 M^Rs. 

Its mean sidereal revolution is performed in 686.9796458 solai days ; or 
la 686 days, 23 hours, 30 ininutes. 41.4 seconds. Its synodical revolution is 
perionned in 779.936 solar days; or in 779 days, 22 hours, 27 minutes, and 
dO seconds. 

[ts form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame- 
ter is to its equatorial, as 15 is to 16, nearly. Its mean 
i'iiameter is 4222 miles. Its bull?, therefore, is 7 times less 
than that of the Earth; and being 50 millions of miles 
farther from the Sun, it receives from him only half as much 
light and heat. 

The inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, is about 
2Sf°. Consequently, its seasons must be very similar to 
those of the Earth. Indeed, the analogy between Mars and 
the Earth is greater than the analogy between the Earth 
and any other planet of the solar system. Their diurnal 
motion, and of course the length of their days and nights, are 
nearly the same ; the obliquity of their ecliptics, on which 
the seasons depend, are not very different ; and, of all the 
superior planets, the distance of Mars from the Sun is by far 
the nearest to that of the Earth ; nor is the length of its 
year greatly different from ours, when compared with the 
years of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. 

To a spectator on this planet, the Earth will appear al- 
ternately, as a mornirig and evening star; and will exhibit 
all the phases of the Moon, just as Mercury and Venus do 
to us; and sometimes, like them, will appear to pass over 
the Sun's disc like a dark round spot. Our Moon will never 
appear more than a quarter of a degree from the Earth, 
although her distance from it is 240,000 miles. If Mars 
be attended by a satellite, it is too small to be seen by the 
most powerful telescopes. 

When it is considered that Vesta, the smallest of the asteroids, which is 
crnce and a half times the distance of Mais from us, and only 269 miles in 
diameter, is perceivable in the open space, and that without tiie presence of 
a more conspicuous body to point it out, we may reasonably conclude that 
Mars is without a moon. 

The progress of Mars in the heavens, and indeed of all the superior pla- 
nets, will, like Mercury and Venus, sometimes appear direct, sometime* 
retroiirade, and sometimes he will seem stationary. When a .superior 
planer fir.st becomes visible in the mornin<r. west of the Sun, a littlo after 
its coiijiinction. its motion is direct, and also most rapid. When it i.s first 
seen east of the Sun, in the eveniny;. soon alter its opposition, its motion i^ 
retrograde. These retrograde movements and stations, as they appear to a 

In lohat time, does it perform its mean sidereal revolution 7 In what time, its sy 
nodical rcvdution ? Wliat are its form and fiimenslons ? What, then, is its bulk, corn- 
pared \vith the Earth's, ami how much less light and heat doe<< it receive from the -Sun? 
What is the inclination of its a.\is to the plane of its orbit? How are its sea-sons, compa- 
red with thcise of the Earth ? In what particulars i.s there a greater atmlocy between Mara 
arid the Earth, than between the Earth and any other planet in the solar system ? What 
must be the appearance of the Earth to a spectator at Mars ? What is the greatest dis- 
tance from the Ear*h at which our Moon will appear to him to bo? Why may ice rear 
tonnhly conclude that Mam has no satellite 7 Describe th" vrogress of Mars >h) im^h 
the heavens. 



MARS. 225 

spectator from the Earth, are common to all the placsts, and demonstrate 
the Irmh of the Copernican system. 

The telescopic phenomena of Mars afford peculiar in- 
terest to astronomers. They behold its disc diversified 
with numerous irregular and variable spots, and ornamented 
with zones and belts of varying brilliancy, that form, and 
disappear, by turns. Zones of intense brightness are to be 
,seen in its polar regions, subject, however, to gradual 
changes. That of the southern pole is much the most bril- 
liant. Dr. Herschel supposes that they are produced by 
the reflection of the Sun's light from the frozen regions, and 
that the melting of these masses of polar ice is the cause of 
:he variation in their magnitude and appearance. 

He was the more confirmed in these opinions by observ- 
ing, that after the exposure of the luminous zone about the 
north pole to a summer of eight months, it was considerably 
decreased, while that on the south pole, which had been in 
total darkness during eight months, had considerably in- 
creased. 

He observed, farther, that when this spot was most lu- 
minous, the disc of Mars did not appear exactly round, and 
that the bright part of its southern limb seemed to be swollen 
or arched out beyond the proper curve. 



TELESCOPIC APPEARANCES OF MARS. 

Fig. 16. 




The extraordinary height and density of the atmosphere 
of Mars, are supposed to be the cause of the remarkable 
redness of its light. 

It has been found by experiment, that when a beam of 
while light passes through any colourless transparent me- 
dium, its colour inclines to red, in proportion to the density 
of the medium, and the space through which it has travelled. 
Thus the Sun, Moon, and stars, appear of a reddish colour 

WMt system, do these retrograde moixments and statJom, common to a'l the pla- 
nets as seen from the Earth, serve to establish? What are the telescopic phenomeBS 
of iMars ? Ho\v does Dr. Herschel account for them 1 How way the remarkable redo^i 
Bf the hght of Mars be accounted for J 



226 TH^ ASTEROIDS. 

when near the horizon; and every luminous object, seen 

through a mist, is of a ruddy hue. 

This phenomenon may be thus explained: — The momentum of the reel, 
or least refrangible rays, being jcreater than that of the violet, or most refran- 
gible rays, the former will inake their way through (he resisting mefliimi, 
while the latter are either reflected or absorbed. The colour of the heavl^ 
Jierefore, when it reaches the eye, must partake of the colour of the least 
refrangible rays, and this colour nmsl increase wilh the distance. The ''Jnt 
light, therefore, by which Mars is illuminated, having to pass twice through 
\'.s atmosphere before it reaches the Earth, must be deprived of a great j)ro* 
portion of its violet rays, and consequently then be red. Dr. Brewster sup- 
joses that the difference of colour among the other planets, and even th« 
fixed star.s, is owing to the different heights and densities of their atrnos' 
pheres. 



THE ASTEROIDS, OR TELESCOPIC PLANETS. 

Ascending higher in the solar system, we find, betweea 
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, a cluster of four small plan- 
ets, which present a variety of anomalies that distinguish 
them from all the older planets of the system. Their names 
are Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas. They were all dis- 
covered about the beginning of the present century. 

The dates of their discovery, and the names of their discoverers, ai e aa 
follows : 

Ceres, .Tanuary 1. 1801, by M. Piazzi, of Palermo. 

Pallas. March 28, 1502, by M. Olbers, of Bremen. 

Juno. September I, 1804, by M. Harding, of Bremen. 

Vesta, March 29, 1807, by M. Olbers, of Bremen. 

The scientific Bode* entertained the opinion, that the plane- 
tary distances, above Mercury, formed a geometrical series, 
each exterior orbit being double the distance of its next 
interior one, from the Sun; a fact which obtains with re- 
markable exactness between Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel. 
But this law seemed to be interrupted between Mars and 
Jupiter. Hence he inferred, thai there was a planet want 
ing m that interval : which is now happily supplied by the 
discovery of the four star-form planets, occupying the very 
space where the unexplained vacancy presented a strong 
objection to his theory. 

* Acfordinif to him, the distance-; of the planets may be expressed nearly as follows t 
the Earth's di.<tance from the Sun being 10. 

Mercury 4 = 41 Asteroids 4+3X2» - 28 

Venus 4-f-3Xl = 7 Jupiter 4H-3X2I = .'S2 

The Earth 4-^.3X2 = 10 Saturn 4-f-3X25 = UK) 

Mars 4-f3X22 = 16 Iler.schel 4-r3X2'' = 1% 

Comparing those values \\ ith the actual mean distances of the planets from the Sun, we 
cannot jut remark the near aprreement, and can scaicely hecitate to pronounce that 
the re.spoctive distances of the planets from the Sun, were assigned according to a law, 
althoudi we are entirely ignorant of the exact law, and of the reason for that \a.\\ —Bi ink- 
leifn Elements, p. 89. 

What new planets have been discovered within the present century? "Where are they 
situated ? What are the dates of their dincnvenj. and the ncvtr.i nf their discirvcrert J 
Why did Bode infer tluit there was a p'anct wanting between Mars and Jupiter' 



THE ASTEROIDS. 227 

These bodies are much smaller in size llian the older 
planets — they all revolve at nearly the same distances 
from the Sun, and perform their revolutions in nearly the 
same periods^ — their orbits are much more eccentric, and 
have a much greater inclination to the ecliptic, — and Yv^hat 
is altogether singular, except in the case of comets — all cross 
each other; so that there is even a possibility that tv^^o of 
these bodies, may, some time, in the course of their revolu- 
tions, come into collision. 

The orbit of Vesta is so eccentric, that she is sometimes 
farther from the Sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno, 
although her mean distance is many millions of miles less 
than theirs. The orbit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all the 
other three, in two opposite points. 

The student should here refer to the Figures, Plate I. of the Atlas, and veri- 
fy such of these particulars as are there represented. It would be well for 
the teacher to require Mm to observe particularly the positions of their orbits, 
and to state their different degrees of inclination to the plane of the ecliptic. 

From these and other circumstances, many eminent as- 
tronomers are of opinion, that these four planets are the 
fragments of a large celestial body which once revolved 
between Mars and Jupiter, and v/hich burst asunder by- 
some tremendous convulsion, or some external violence. 
The discovery of Ceres by Piazzi, on the first day of the 
present century, drew the attention of all the astronomers 
of the age to that region of the sky, and every inch of it 
was minutely explored. The consequence was, that, in 
the vear following. Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, announced 
to the world the discovery of Pallas, situated not many 
degrees from Ceres, and very much resembling it in size. 

From this discovery, Dr. Gibers first conceived the idea 
that these bodies might be the fragments of a former world ; 
and if so, that other portions of it might be found either in the 
same neighbourhood, or else, having diverged from the same 
point, '"they ought to have two common points of reunion, or 
two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens through which 
all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass." 

One of these nodes he found to be, in the constellation 
Virgo, and the opposite one, in the W'hale ; and it is a re- 
markable coincidence that it was in the neighbourhood of 



In what particulars do these new planets differ from the older planets 7 How is it poa- 
sible that two of them should ever come into collision ? How is it that Vesta is sometimes 
farther from the Sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno, when her mean distance is many 
nuUions of miles less than theirs? What is the position of her orbit with regard to thek 
orbits? What theory in regard to the origin of these planets have some astronomers de- 
rived from these and some other circumstances ? Who first conceived this idea ? How 
came he to have this idea ? Where did he imagine other fragments might be foimd? Is 
what constellations did he find these nodes to be 3 



228 THE ASTEROIDS. 

the latter constellation that Mr. Harding discovered the 
planer Juno. In order therefore to detect the remaining 
fragments, if any existed, Dr. Olbers examined, three times 
every year, all the small stars in Virgo, and the Whale; 
and it was actually in the constellation Virgo, that he dis- 
covered the planet Vesta. Some astronomers think it not 
unlikely that other fragments of a similar description may 
hereafter be discovered. Dr. Brewster attributes the fall 
oi' meteoric stones to the smaller fragments of these bodies 
happening to come within the sphere of the Eaith's at- 
traction. 

Meteoric stones, or what are generally termed aerolites, are stones which 
sometimes fall from the upper regions of the atmosphere, upon tlie Earth. 
The substance of which they are composed, is, for the most part, metallic ; 
but the ore of which it consists is not to be found in the same constituent 

f proportions in any known substance upon the Earth. Their fall is general- 
y preceded by a luminous ajipearance, a hissing noise, and a loud explo- 
sion ; and, when found immediately alter their descent, they are always 
hot, and usually covered with a black crust, indicating a state of exterior 
fusion. 

Their size varies from that of small fragments of inconsiderable weight, 
to that of the most ponderous masses. Tliey have been found to weigh 
from 300 pounds to several tons ; and they have descended to the Earth 
with a force sufficient to bury them many feet under the surface. 

Some have supposed that they are projected from volcanoes in the 
Moon ; others, that they proceed from volcanoes on the Earth ; while othrrs 
imagine that they are generated in tlie regions of the atmosphere ; but 
thelruth, probably, is not yet ascertained. In some instances, these sioiies 
have penetrated through the roofs of houses, and proved destructive to the 
inhabitants. 

If we carefully compute the force of gravity in the Moon, we shall find, 
that if a body were projected from her surface with a momentum that 
would cause it to move at the rate of 8.200 feet in the first second of lime, 
and in the direction of a line joining tlie centres of the Earth and Moon, it 
would not fall again to the surface of the Moon ; but would become a sa- 
tellite to the Earth. Such an impulse might, indeed, cause if^ even after 
many revolutions, to fall to the Earth. The fall, therefore, of these stones, 
from the air, may be accounted for in this manner. 

Mr. Harte calculates, that even a velocity of 6000 feet in a second, would 
be sufficient to carry a body projected from the surface of the Moon beyonc 
Ihe power of her attraction. If so, a projectile force three times greater 
than that of a cannon, would carry a body from the Moon beyond the point 
of equal attraction, and cause it to reach the Earth. A force equal to this 
is often exerted by our volcanoes, and by subterranean steam. Hence 
there is no impossibility in tlie supposition of their coming from the Moon : 
hut yet I think the theory of aerial consolidation the more plausible. 

Vesta appears, however, like a star of the 5th or 6th 
magnitude, shining with a pure steady radiance, and is the 
only one of the asteroids which can be discerned by tha 
naked eye. 



Where were Juno and Vesta actually found ? How did Dr. Olivers discover Vesta ? T» 
what does br. Brewster attribute the fall of meteoric stones ? What is meant by tfu 
ex-prtssirm, meteoric stones 1 Of what svbstance are they composed 7 In tchat re- 
tpect do they differ frmn any metallic substances knmon on the Eai th ? What indi 
cations generally precede their fall 7 In what state are they found to be after theif 
descent 7 What is their magnitude 7 What theories hare been adopted to account 
Jot their origin 7 Explain hoxo it is not impossible that they may ccme from tht 
Moon. Describe the appearance o5 Vesta. 



THE ASTEROIDS. 229 

Juno, the next planet m order after Vesta, revolves 
around the Sun in 4 years, 4^ months, at the mean distance 
of 254 millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of 
41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at 
1393 miles. This would make her magnitude 183 times less 
than the Earth's. The light and heat which she receives 
from the Sun is seven times less than that received by the 
Earth. 

The eccentricity of her orbit is so great, that her great- 
est distance from the Sun is nearly double her least distance ; 
so ^hat, when she is in her perihelion^ she is nearer the Sun 
by 130 millions of miles, than when she is in her aphelion. 
This great eccentricity has a corresponding effect upon 
her rate of motion ; for being so much nearer, and there- 
fore so much more powerfully attracted by the Sun at one 
time than at another, she moves through that half of her 
orbit which is nearest the Sun, in one half of the time that 
she occupies in completing the other half 

According to Schroeter, the diameter of Juno is 1425 miles ; and she is 
suriounded by an atmosphere more dense than that of any of the other 
planets. Scliroeter also remarks, that the variation in her brilliancy is 
chiefly owing to certain changes in the density of her atmosphere; at the 
same time lie thinks it not improbable that these changes may arise from 
a diurnal revolution on her axis. 

Ceres, the planet next in order after Juno, revolves about 
the Sun in 4 years, 7^ months, at the mean distance of 263^ 
millions of miles, moving in her orbit at the rate of 41 
thousand miles an hour. Her diameter is estimated at 1582 
miles, which makes her magnitude 125 times less than the 
Earth's. The intensity of the light and heat which she re- 
ceives from the Sun, is about 7^ times less than that of those 
received by the Earth. 

Ceres shines with a ruddy colour, and appears to be only 
about the size of a star of the 8th magnitude. Consequent- 
ly she is never seen by the naked eye. She is surrounded 
by a species of cloudy or nebulous light, whiph gives her 

What is the planet next in order after Vesta ? In -what time does she complete her re- 
?o ution aruund the ?un? What is her mean distance from him? \\'\mX the rate of hef 
motion per hour? What is the length of her diameter? How much less, then, is her 
Biagp.itude. than tl^at of the Earth? How much light and heat does she receive from the 
Sun, cmnpareti vWth those received by the Earth ? How much greater is her greatest dis- 
tance from the_ Sun. than her least distance? How much less time does she occupy in 
moving through that half of her orbit which is nearest to the Sim, than she does in mo- 
ving through that half whicli is farthest from him? What is her diameter according to 
Bchrneter ? According- to the same astrono'ner, loliat is the density of her atmoa- 
phere, compared xvith that of the other p'anets ? Toiohat does he attribute the va- 
Tiation in her hrillmncy 7 What is the next planetin order after Juno ? In what time 
drMjs she ci>ini)lete her revolution about the Sun ? What is her mean distance from him ? 
What is the rate of her motion per hour ? What is her diameter? How great is her mag^ 
litude, compared with that of the Earth? What is the intensity of the light and heat 
which she receives from the Sun, compared with that of those received by the Earth ^ 
Describe her aripearance. 

20 



230 JUPITER. 

somewhat the appearance of a comet, formmg, according to 

Schroeter, an atmosphere 675 miles in lieighl. 

Ceres, as has been said, was the first discovered of the asteroids. At 
her discovery, astronomers conffnuulaied themselves upon the harmony of 
the system being restored. They had long wanted a planet to fill up the 
great void between Mars and Jupiter, in order to make the sy.steni cnriiplete 
in their own eyes; but the successive discoveries of Pallas and Juno again 
introduced confusion, and pifsenceda difficulty which they were unable to 
solve, till Dr. Olbers sujrgcsii'd the idea that these small anomalous bodies 
w'ere merely the fratrnients of alarjier planet which had been exploded by 
some mighty convulsion. Among the most able and decided advocates of 
this hypothesis, is Dr. Brevvsier, of Edinburgh. 

Pallas, the next planet in order after Ceres, performs her 
revolution around the Sun in 4 years, 7f months, at the 
mean distance of 264 millions of miles, moving in her orbit 
at the rate of 41 thousand miles an hour. Her diameter 
is estimated at 2025 miles, which is but little less than thar 
of our Moon. It is a singular and very remarkable pheno- 
menon m the solar system, that two planets, (Ceres and 
Pallas,) nearly of the same size, should be situated at equal 
distances from the Sun, revolve about him in the same 
period, and in orbits that intersect each other. The dif 
ference in the respective distances of Ceres and Pallas is 
less than a million of miles. The difference in their side- 
real revolutions, according to some astronomers, is but a 
single day ! 

The calculation of the latitude and longitude of the asteroids, is a labour 
of extreme difficulty, requiring more than 400 equations to rerluce their 
anomalous perturbations to tiie true place. This arises from the want of 
auxiliary tables, and from the fact that the elements of the star-form planets, 
are very imperfectly determined. Whether any of the asteroids has a ro- 
tation on its axis, remains to be ascertained. 



JUPITER. 

Jupiter is the largest of all the planets belonging to the 
solar system. It may be readily distinguished from the 
fixed stars, by its peculiar splendour and magnitude; ap 
pearing to the naked eye almost as resplendent as Venus, 
although it is more than seven times her distance from the 
Sun. 

How high: according to Schroeter, is the atmosphere formed by this nohiilou.s lieht ? 
Why did astrovmners comgratiila'e themselves at the discorery of this planet 7 What 



again introduced confusion and difficulty ivtu their syste'niJ Hoto vere they at 
length enabled to solve the difficulty 7 What planet is the next in order alter Ceres ? 
In what time does she complete her revchifion around the Sun ? What is her mean dis- 
tance fi-om him ? What is the rate of hei motion in her orbit per hour? What is her di- 
ameter ? How preat is it compared with tho diameter of the IVloon? What is the diflc^ 
ence between the respective distances of Ceres and Pallas from the Sun ' What is the 
difference between the times of their sidereal revolutions ? Why is the calculation of the 
latitude and longitude of the asteroids a Inloiir of extreme difficulty 7 Have any of 
the asteroids rotations on their axes 7 Which is the largest planet of the .solar system ? 
How may Jupiter be readily distinguished from the fixed stars? How much farther is be 
ftom the Sun than Venus? 



JUPITER. 231 

When his rigni ascension is less than that of the Sun, he 
IS our morning star, and appears in the eastern hemi- 
sphere before the Sun rises; when greater, he is our 
evening star, and lingers in the western hemisphere after 
the Sun sets. 

Nothing can be easier than to trace Jupiter among the 
constellatioDs of the zodiac ; for in whatever constellation 
he is seen to-day, one year hence he will be seen equally 
advanced in the ne.vt constellation ; two years hence, in the 

ixt ; three years hence, in the next, and so on; being 
just a year, at a mean rate, in passing over one constel- 
lation. 

The exact mean motion of Jupiter in its orbit, is about one twelfth of $ 
degree in a day ; wliicli amounts to only 30° 20' 32" in a year. 

For 12 years to come, he will, at a mean rate, pass 
through the constellations of the zodiac, as follows : 



1834 


Aries. 


1838 


Leo. 


1842 


Sagittarius. 


1S35 


Taurus. 


1839 


Virgo. 


1843 


Capricornus. 


1836 


Gemini. 


1840 


Libra. 


1844 


Aquarius. 


1837 


Cancer. 


1841 


Scorpio. 


1845 


Pisces. 



Jupiter is the next planet in the solar system above the 
steroids, and performs his annual revolution around the 

Sun in nearly 12 of our years, at the mean distance of 495 

millions of miles ; moving in his orbit at the rate of 30,000 

miles an hour. 

^'Iie exact perii:)d of Jupiter's sidereal revolution is 11 years. 10 months, 
days, 14 lioiirs. 21 minutes, 2-5i seconds. His exact mean distance I'rom 

the Sun is 49o.533.837 miles; consequently, the exact rate of his motion in 

his orbit, is 29.943 nnles per hour. 

He revolves on an axis, which is perpendicular to the 
plane of his orbit, in 9 hours, 55 minutes, and 50 seconds ; 
so that his year contains 10,471 days and nights; each 
about 5 hours long. 

His form is that of an oblate spheroid, whose polar diame 
ter is to its equatorial, as 13 to 14. He is therefore consid- 
erably m.ore flattened at the poles, than any of the othei 
planets, except Saturn. This is caused by his rapid rotation 
on hip axis ; for it is a universal law that the equatorial 
parts of every body, revolving on an axis, will be swollen 



In what case is he our moming star, and in what our evening? How may he be traced 
among the constellations of the ZoJiac l In what constellation will he be, each year, for 
twelve years to come? What is his position in the solar system? What is his mean dis- 
tance from the San ? "What is the rate per hour of his motion in his orbit ? What is the 
exact period of his siderea' revolution ? What is his exact mean distance from the 
iiun 7 What the exact rate per hour of his inotion in his orhi.t ? What is the posi- 
tion of his axis with respect to the plane of his orbit i How many days and nights does 
his year contain ? How long are they, «>.ach? What is his form ? What is the ratio be- 
tween his polar and equatorial diameters ? What is the cause of his being more flattened 
at *iie poles tiian any of the other planets ? 



GUI, in proportion to the density of the body, and the rapidi- 
ty of its motion. 

The difference belvveen the polar and equatorial dianpeters of Jnpiler, 
exceeds 6000 miles. The difference between the polar and equatorial di- 
ameters of the Earth, is only 26 miles. Jupiter, even on the most careless 
view through a good telescope, appears to be oval ; the longer diameter 
being parallel to the direction of his belts, which are also parallel to the ecliptic 

By this rapid whirl on his axis, his equatorial inhabitants 
are carried around at the rate of 26,554 miles an hour ; 
which is 1600 m*iles farther than the equatorial inhabitants 
of the Earth are carried, by its diurnal motion, in twenty- 
four hours. 

The true wean diameter of Jupiter is 86,255 miles ; which 
is nearly 11 times greater than the Earth's. His volume 
is therefore about ihirteen hundred miles larger than that 
of the Earth. {Compare his magnitude with that of the 
Earth. Plate I.) On account of his great distance from 
the Sun, the degree of light and heat which he receives 
from it, is 27 times less than that received by the Earth. 

When Jupiter is in conjunction, he rises, sets, and comes to the meridian 
with the Sun ; but is never observed to make a transit, or pass over the 
Sun's disc; when in opposition, he rises when the Sun sets, sets when the 
Sun rises, and comes to the meridian at midnight, which never happens in 
the case of an interior planet. This proves that Jupiter revolves in an orbit 
which is exterior to that of the Earth. 

As the variety in the seasons of a planet, and in the length 
of its days and nights, depends upon the inclination of its axis 
to the plane of its orbit, and as the axis of Jupiter has no 
inclination, there can be no difference in his seasons, on 
the same parallels of latitude, nor any variation in the 
length of his days and nights. It is not to be understood, 
however, that one icniform. season prevails from his equator 
to his poles ; but that the same parallels of latitude on each 
side of his equator, uniformly enjoy the same season, what- 
ever season it may be. 

About his equatorial regions there is perpetual summer ; 
and at his poles everlasting winter ; but yet equal day and 
equal night at each. This arrangement seems to have been 
kindly ordered by the beneficent Creator ; for had his axis 
been inclined to his orbit, like that of the Earth, his polar 
winters would have been alternately a dreadful night of 
/fi:v years darkness. 

What is the cUfftrevce between his polar and equatorial diametersJ What does 
his fonn appear to be, ihrovgh a good telescope'/ What is th-e direction of his 
longer diameter 7 At what rate per hour are his equatorial inhabitants cam't'd by his 
motion on his axis? How much farther is this than the e<iuatorial inhabitnnis ol the 
Earth are carried in 24 hours? What is Jupiter's tnie mean diameter? How much 
grefiter is it tiian the Earth's ? What is his volume, compared with the Earth'.* ? What 
IS the degree of lieht and heat which he receives from the sun, compared with tjiat re- 
ceived by the Earth ? How do toe knoio that Sup'ter's orbit /« exterior to that of the 
E'lrth? What is the arranecment of Jupiter's seasons, and of his days and ni{:ht.s ) 
Had his axis been inclined to the plane of his orbit, like that of our Earth, How long would 
hid polar nights have been ? 



TELESCOPIC APPEAR A.NCES OF JUPITER. 
Fig. 17. . 





.Tupiter when viewed through a telescope, appears to be 
surrounded by a number of luminous zones, usually termed 
belts, that frequently extend quite around him. These belts 
are parallel not only p each other, but, in general, to his 
equator, which is also nearly parallel to the ecliptic. They 
are subject, however, to considerable variation, both in 
breadth and number. Sometimes eight have been seen at 
once; sometimes only one, but more usually three. Dr. 
Herschel once perceived his whole disc covered with small 
belts. 

Sometimes these belts continue for months at a time with 
little or no variation, and sometimes a new belt has been seeu 
10 form in a few hours. Sometimes they are interrupted in 
their length ; and at other times, they appear to spread in 
width, and run into each other, until their breadth exceeds 
5,000 miles. 

Bright and dark spots are also frequently to be seen m 
the belts, which usually disappear with the belts themselves, 
though not always, for Cassini observed that one occupied 
the same position more than 40 years. Of the cause of 
these variable appearances, but little is known. They are 
generally supposed to be nothing more than atmospherical 
phenomena, resulting from, or combined with, the rapid mo- 
tion of the planet upon its axis. 

Different opinions liave been entertained by astronomers respecting the 
cause of ttiese belts and spots. By some they have been regarded as clouds, 
or as openings in the atmosphere of the planet, while othei's imagine that 
they are of a more permanent nature, and are the marks of great physical 
revolutions, which are perpetually agitating and changing the surface of 
tlie planet. The first of these opinions sufficiently explains the variations 
In the form and magnitude of the spots, and the parallelism of the belts. 
The spot first observed by Cassini, in 1665, vfhich has both disappeared 
and re-appeared in the same form and position for the space of 43 years, 
could not possibly be occasioned by any atmospherical variations, but seems 
evidently to be connected with the surface of the planet. The form of the 

Describe Jupiter's appearance, as se&n through a telescope. What is supposed to be 
the cause of these phenomena ? Relate some of the different opinions entertained by 
utronomers on this subject. 

20* 



234 JUPITER. 

belt, according to some astronomers, may be accounted for by suppoetng 
that the atmosphere reflects more light than the body of the planet, and 
that the clouds which float in it, being thrown into parallel strata bv the 
rapidity of its diurnal motion, form regular interstices, through which are 
seen its opaque body, or any of the j)ermanent spots which may come within 
ihe range of the opening. 

Jupiter is also attended by four satellites or moons, some 
of which are visible to him every hour of the night; exhib- 
iting, on a small scale and in short periods, most of the phe- 
nomena of the solar system. When viewed through a tele- 
scope, these satellites present a most interesting and beau- 
tiful appearance. The first satellite, or that nearest the 
planet, is 259.000 miles distant from its centre, and revolves 
around it in A2i hours; and appears, at the surface of Jup"- 
ter, four times larger than our Moon does to us. His second 
satellite, being both smaller and farther distant, appears 
about the size of ours; the third, somewhat less; and the 
fourth, which is more than a million of miles from him, and 
takes 16? days to revolve around him, appears only about one 
third the diameter of our Moon. 

These satellites suffer frequent eclipses from passing 
th»-ough Jupiter's shadow, in the same mann'^r as our Moon 
is eclipsed in passing through the Earth's shadow. The 
three nearest satellites fall into his shadow, and are eclips- 
ed, in every revolution ; but the orbit of the fourth is so 
much inclined, that it passes by its opposition to him, twc 
years in six, without falling into his shadow. By means of 
these eclipses, astronomers have not only discovered that 
light is 8 minutes and 13 seconds in coip.ing to us from the 
Sun, but are also enabled to determine the longitude of pla- 
ces on the Earth with greatei facility and exactness than 
by any other methods yet known. 

It was long since found, by the most careful observations, that when the 
Earth is in that part of her orbit wdiich is nearest to Juj)iter, the eclip.ses 
appear to happen 8' 13" sooner than the tables predict; and when in 
that part of her orbit which is farthest from him, 8' 13" later than tiie 
taijles predict; making a total difference in time, of 16' 26". From the 
mean of 6OJ0 eclipses observed by Delambre, this disagreement betwefcn 
ohservaiion and calculation, was satisfactorily settled at 8' 13", while both 
were considered equally correct. Now when the eclipses happen sooner 
than ihe tables. Jupiter is at his nearest approach to the Farth— when later, 
at his greatest distance ; so that the difference in his distances froo) the 
Earth. \n the two cases, is the whole diameter of the Earth's orbit, or about 
190 iJiilUons of miles. Hence, it is concluded that light is not instantane- 

How many satellites has Jupiter? How often are they visible to him ? What is th« 
distance from him of his first or nearest satellite ? What is the tim<j of its revolution 7 
What is its apparent mafrnitudc at the surface of Jupiter, compared with the magnitude 
of tne -Moon, as seen oy us? What are the apparent magnitudes of his other satellites, 
as seen at his surface, compared with that of the Moon as seen at the Earth ? >V hat, ia 
the distance of his fourth satellite from him ? What is the time of its revolution ? How 
often are his three nearest satellites eclipset.'? How often his fourth? Why is it not 
eclipsed as often as the others ? What imporu^nt purposes have these eclipses served to 
BJtronomers? Slate tiie method by which the progressive motion of light, and the 
time v}hich it nccupies in cvinine to vsfrwn the Siun, mere discovered. 



SATURIf . 235 

»u», but that it occupies 16^26''' in passing across the Earth's nrbit, or S' IS'' 
in coming from the Sun to the Earth ; being nearly 12 millions of miles a 
tninufe. 

The revolutions of the satellites about Jupiter are pre- 
cisely similar to the revolutions of the planets about the 
Sun. In this respect they are an epitome of the solar sys- 
tem, exhibiting, on a smaller scale, the various changes that 
take place among the planetary worlds. 

Jupiter, when seen from his nearest satellite, appears a 
thousand times larger than our Moon does to us, exhibiting 
on a scale of inconceivable magnificence, the varying forms 
of a crescent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full moon, 
every 42 hours. 

The apparent diameters of Jupiter's satellites, their mean distances from 
him, and tlieir periodical revolutions, are exhibited in the following table. 



Satellites. 


Revolution. 


App. 
Diam. 


Mean Dist. 


First, 
Second, 
Third, 
Fourth, 


Id. 18h. 2Sm. 
3 13 14 
7 3 43 
16 16 32 


1. 667 
1. 189 
1. 050 
0. 550 


259,000 
414:000 
647,000 
1,164,000 




SATURN. 







Saturn is situated between the orbits of Jupiter and Her- 
schel, and is the most remote planet from the Earth of any 
that are visible to the naked eye. It may be easily distin- 
guished from the fixed stars by its pale, feeble, and steady 
light. It resembles the star Fomalhaut, both in colour and 
size, differing from it only in the steadiness and uniformity 
of its light. 

From the slowness of its motion in its orbit, the pupil, 
throughout the period of his whole life, mav trace its appa- 
rent course among the stars, without any danger of mistake. 
Having once found when it enters a particular constella- 
tion, he may easily remember where he is to look for it in 
any subsequent year ; because, at a mean rate, it is just 2^ 
years in passing over a single sign or constellation. 

Saturn's mean daily motion among the stars is only about 
Z\ the thirtieth part of a degree. 

Saturn entered the constellation Virgo about the beginning of 1833, and 
continued in it until the middle of the year 1835, when he passed into Li- 

In what respect are Jupiter's satellites an epitome of the solar system 7 What is Jupi- 
ter's appearance, as seen irom his nearest satellite? Who.t are the diameters, mean (US' 
tances, and times if the revolution of hi^ sateUites? Where, in the solar system, ia 
Saturn situated ? How may it be distingxiished from the fixed stars ? What star does it 
resemble ? In what respects is it like it, and in what is it different from it ? How may his 
place among the stars be readily found ? What is about the rate of his mean daily mo- 
Uon among the stars 1 When did Saturn eruer the constellation Virgo, and hoio long 
aid he continue in it 7 What constellation did he enter next, and, how Ions' will ht 
eontinuc in it? 



236 



ora. He will continue in that constellation unti\ 1838; and so on; occc 
pying about 2^ years in each coustellation, or nearly 30 years in one revo. 

lution. 

The mean distance of Saturn from the Sun is nearly- 
double that of Jupiter, being about 909 millions of miles. 
His diameter is about 82,000 miles; his volume therefore 
is eleven hundred times greater than the Earth's. Moving 
in his orbit at the rate of 22,000 miles an hour, he requires 
29^ years to complete his circuit around the Sun: but hi3 
diurnal rotation on his axis is accomplished in lO-"- hours. 
His year, therefore, is nearly thirty times as long as ours, 
while his day is shorter by more than one half. His year 
contains about 25,150 of its own days, which are equal to 
10,759 of our days. 

The surface of Saturn, like that of Jupiter, is diversified 
with belts and dark spots. Dr. Herschel sometimes per- 
ceived five belts on his surface ; three of which were dark, 
and two bright. The dark belts have a yellov^ish tinge, and 
generally cover a broader zone of the planet than those ' of 
Jupiter. 

To the inhabitants of Saturn, the Sun appears 90 times 
less than he appears to the Earth; and they receive from 
him only one ninetieth part as much light and heat. Bui 
it is computed that even the ninetieth part of the Sun's light 
exceeds the illuminating power of 3,000 full moons, which 
would be abundantly sufficient for all the purposes of life. 
Fig. 18. 

The telescopic appearance 
jlof Saturn is unparalleled. It 
|is even more interesting than 
Jjupiter, With all his moons 
Hand belts. That which emi- 
nently distinguishes this 
[planet from e^erv other in 
the system, is a magnificent 
izone or ring, encircling it 
with perpetual light. 

The light of the ring is 
more brilliant than the pla- 

Hoio long time does he occupy in passing thrcvgh each constellation, ami lohat ia 
the length of his year ? What is liis distance from the Sun ? How much greater is this 
than Jupiter's distance ? What is his diameter ? How much greater is his volume tnan 
that of the Earth ? What is the rate per hour of his motion in his orbit ? In what lime is 
his diurnal motion on his axis performed ? How many of his own days does his year eon- 
tam, and how many of ours ? What is the appearance of his ;Burface to us ? How many 
belts did Dr. Herschel perceive on his surface ? Describe them. How much le.>is doe* 
the Sun appear to the inhabitants of Saturn than to us ? What degree of light and heat 
does he leceive from the Sun, compared with that received by the Eart.li ? To ihe hghtof 
bow m.iny full moons is this degree of liglit equal? Describe the tclescxjoic appeamnoe 
of faturn) 




SATURN. 237 

net Itself. It turns around its centre of motion in the same 
time that Saturn turns on it«? axis. When viewed with a 
good telescope, it is found to consist of two concentric rings, 
divided by a dark band. 

By the laws of mechanics, it Is impossible that the body of tiie ringrs 
should retain its position by the adhesion of the particles alone ; it must ne- 
cessarily revolve v>nth a velocity that will generate centrifugal force suffi- 
cient to' balance the attraction of Saturn. Observation confirms the truth 
of those principles, showing that the rings rotate about the planet in 10^ 
hours, which is considerabfy less tlian the time a satellite would take to re- 
volve about it at the same distance. Their plane is inclined to the echptic 
in an angle of 31°. In consequence of this obliquity of position, they al- 
ways appear elliptical to us, but with an eccentricity so variable as to ap- 
pear, occasionally, like a straight hne drawn across the planet; in which 
case they are visible only by the aid of superior instruments. Such was 
their position in April. 1S3-3 ; for the Sun was then passing from their south 
to their north side. The rings intersect the ecliptic in two opposite points, 

Saturn's rings. 
Fig. 19. 




am/ 



<^, 




Why should, roe judge, previotus to observation, tfiat these rings mtist revolve 
fLround him 7 Does observation confirm this opinion 7 In xohat time do the rings 
revolve about the planet 7 Is this a grea'er or less timethan asatelliteat thesamedis- 
tanceioonld require to revolve about it 7 Ulnj do the rings always appear ellipticcu 
to us 7 To lohat extent does the eccentricity of Vie rings vary 7 What is the posi- 
tion of the rings toith regard to the ecliptic? 



238 SATUx^N. 

which may be called ihsir nodes. Thesp points are in longitude l?*/*, and 
y5U.']o<;rees. When, therefore, Saturn is in either of these points, hie riiisa 
will be invisible to us. On the contrary, when his loniritude is 80'^, or <J>0^, 
the rin^s may be seen to the g^reaie-^t advantage. As ilie edjies of the rings 
will present themselves lo the "Sun twice in each revolutionof the planet, it id 
obviou.s that the disap])oarance of them will occur once in about 15 years ; 
subject, however, to the variation dependent on the position of the Earth at 
that time. 

The preceding diagrams are a very good representation of the form and 
posilion of the rings as they appear to a spectator during one comitlete revolu- 
tiim of Saturn through rhe signs of the ecliptic. 

By reference to the fiirure. it will be seen, that when Saturn is in either of 
the first six signs, the Sun shines on the soM//t side of the rings; and that 
while he is in either of the last six signs, upon their north side. 

The following are the dates during the ensuing revolutions of the planet, 
when its mean heliocpntric longitude is such that the rings will (if the Earth 
be favourably situated) either be invisible, or seen to the greatest advan- 
tage. 



ISaS April. I 20= of Virso. 

1«8 July. I 20° of Scorjiio. 
18i7 Dec. 20° of Aquarius. 

1855 Anril. 20° of Gemini. 

1S63 Nov. I 20° of Virgo. 



Invisible. 

North side illuminated. 

Invisible. 

South side illuminated. 

Invisible. 



The distatir.f; between Saturn and his inner ring, is only 
21,000 miles ; l)eing less than a tenth part of the distance of 
our Moon froiu the Earth. The breadth of the dark band, 
or the interval between the rings, is hardly 3,000 miles. — 
The breadth of the inner ring is 20,000 miles. Being only 
about the same distance from Saturn, it will present to hig^ 
inhabitants a luminous zone, arching the whole concave 
vault from one hemisphere to the other with a broad girdle 
of light. 

The most obvious use of this double ring is, to reflect 
light upon the planet in the absence of the Sun ; what other 
purposes it may be intended to subserve, is to us unknown. 
The sun, as has been shown, illuminates one side of it during 
15 years, or one half of the period of the planet's revolution ; 
and, during the next 15 years, the other side is enlightened 
in its turn. 

Twice in the course of 30 years, there is a short interval 
of time whe-^i neither side is enlightened, and when, of course 
it ceases to be visible ; — namely, at the time when the Sun 
ceases to shine on one side, and is about to shine on the 



What is the longitude of these nodes 7 In what position of Saium, then, will th4 
rings be invisible to us, and in what position toill they be seen to thebcst advantage? 
Hoxo often loill the disappearance of the rings occur 7 Explain this. In tohat signs 
will the planet be lohen the Sun shines on the south side of the rings, and in what on t/ia 
north side 7 What is the distance between Saturn and his inner ring ? How groat is 
♦his, compared with the distance of our Moon from the Earth ? Wjiat is the distance be- 
tween the two rings ? What is tiie brea.lth of the inner ring ? What must be its appear- 
ance at .Saturn ? What is the most obvious use of this double ring ? How long a time 
does the Sun enlighten each side of it alternately ? How often, and in what circumstan- 
ces, is neither side enlightened, and the ring, of course, invisibie ? 



SATURN. 239 

ather* ft revolves around its axis, and consequently, 
around Saturn, in 10^° hours, which is at the rate of a thou- 
sand miles in a minute, or 58 times swifter than the revolu- 
tion of the Earth's equator. 

When viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the 
absence of the Sun, the rings will appear like vast luminous 
arches, extending along the canopy of heaven, from the 
eastern to the western horizon, exceeding in breadth a hun- 
dred times the apparent diameter of our Moon. 

Besides the rings, Saturn is attended by seven satellites, 
which revolve about him at different periods and distances, 
and reciprocally reflect the Sun's rays on each other and 
on the planet. The rings and moons illuminate the nights 
of Saturn ; the moons and Saturn enlighten the rings, and 
the planet and rings reflect the Sun's beams on the satel- 
lites'. 

The fourth of these satellites (in the ordei- of their distance) was first 
discovered by Huygens, on the 25th of March, 1655, and, in honour of the 
discoverer, was called the Huigenian Satellite. This satellite, being the 
largest of all, is seen without much difficulty. Cassini discovered the 1st, 
2d, 3(1, and 5th satellites, between October, 1671, and March, 1684. Dr. 
Herschel discovered the 6th and 7th in 1789. These are nearer to Saturn than 
any of the rest, though, to avoid confusion, they are named in the order of 
their discovery. 

The sixth and seventh are the smallest of the whole ; the 
first and second are the next smallest; the third is greater 
than the first and second; the fourth is the largest of them 
all ; and the fifth surpasses the rest in brightness. 

Their respective distances from their primary, vary from 
half the distance of our Moon, to two millions of miles. 
Their periodic revolutions vary from 1 day to 79 days. 
The orbits of the six inner satellites, that is, the 1st, 2d, Sd, 
ith, 6lh, and 7th, all lie in the plane of Saturn's rings, and 
s'evolve around their outer edge; while the 5th satellite de- 
viates so far from the plane of the rings, as sometimes to be 
seen through the opening between them and the planet. 

Laplace imagines that the accumulation of matter at Saturn's equator re- 
tain-s the orbiis of the first six satelhtes in the plane of the equator, in the 
sainc iiiaiiiier as it retains the rings in that plane. It has been satisfactorily 
ascertituied, that Saturn has a greater accumulation of matter about his 

* This happens, as we have already shown, when Saturn is either in the 20lh degree o( 
Pisces, or the 2Uth degree of Virgo. When he is between these points, or in the '^oth de- 
gree either of Gemini or of 8aijiftarius, liis ring appears most open to us, and more in the 
form of an oval, whose longest diameter is to the shortest as 9 to 4. 

In what time does the ring complete its revolution on its axis, and, of course, around 
the plaiitit ? What is the rate f)er minute of its motion ? How rapid is this, compared 
with the mot'on of the Earth's equator ? AVhat would be the appearance of the nngs, if 
viewed i'vom ilv: middle zone of the planet, in the absence of the Sun ? How many moons 
has .-^atiirn ? How are Saturn, liis rings and satellites, severally, enlightened ? What arfi 
the datc-'i of tlieir discovery, and the names of their discoverers? Wliat are their 
compuiative magnitudes, distances, aid times of revolution? What is the position of 
theur orbits with respect to the rings of Saturn? What dors Lap!ace imagine retains 
the orbits if Saturn's first six satellites in Che plane of iiis tqtmtor 7 



2140 SA-rjRN. 

equator, and consequently that he is more flattened at the poles, than JupJ- 
ter, though the velocity of the equatorial parts of the former is much less 
than that of the latfer. This is sufficiently accounted for by the fact, that 
the rings of Saturn lie in the plane of his equator, and act more powerfully 
upon those parts of his surface than upon any other; and thus, while they 
aid in diuiinishiuir the gravity of these parts, also aid the centrifugal force in 
flattening the poles of the planet. Indeed, had f^aturn never revolved upon 
his axis, the action of the rings would, of itself, have been sufficient to give 
him the form of an oblate spheroid. 

The theory of the satellites of Saturn is less perfect than 
thai of the satellites of Jupiter. The difficulty of observing 
their eclipses, and of measuring their elongations from their 
primary, have prevented astronomers from determining, 
with their usual precision, their mean distances and revo- 
lutions. 

We may remark, with the Christian Philosopher, that 
there is no planet in the solar system, whose firmament 
presents such a variety of splendid and magnificent objects 
as that of Saturn. 

The various aspects of the seven moons, one rising above 
the horizon, while another is setting, and a third approach 
ing to the meridian; one entering into an eclipse, and an 
otlier emerging from one ; one appearing as a crescent, and 
another with a gibbous phase ; and sometimes the whole 
of them shining in the same hemisphere, in one bright as- 
semblage ! The majestic motion of the rings, — at one time 
illuminating the sky with their splendour, and eclipsing the 
stars ; at another, casting a deep shade over certain regions 
of the planet, and unveiling to view the wonders of the 
starry firmament, are scenes worthy of the majesty of the 
Divine Being to unfold, and of rational creatures to con 
template. 

Such displays of Wisdom and Omnipotence, lead us to 
conclude that the numerous splendid objects connected with 
this planet, were not created merely to shed their lustre on 
naked rocks and barren sands; but that an immense popu- 
lation of intelligent beings is placed in those regions, to 
enjoy the bounty, and adore the goodness, of their great 
Creator. 

The following table exhibits the apparent and mean distances of the satellites 
from their primary, and the times of their periodical revolution. Their dis- 
tances in miles were computed from their observed micrometer distances; 
the diameter of Saturn's equator being considered equal to 80,000 miles. 

Why are astronomers less acquainted with the mean distances anrl revolutions of Sa- 
turn's satelites, than with tliose of Jupiter ? Describe the firmament of Saturn, aa iU» 
minated by his rings and satellites. 



HERSCHEL. 



241 



Satel- 




Periodic 




Distance in 


Distance in 


Utes. 




reYolutioii 




diameters. 


miles. 


I 


Od 


. 22h. 


^111. 


1.540 


12.3,200 


2 


1 


8 


53 


1.976 


158.080 


3 


1 


21 


18 


2.447 


195,720 


4 


2 


17 


45 


3.134 


250,720 


5 


4 


12 


25 


4.377 


350.160 


6 


15 


22 


41 


10.143 


S11,4(X) 


7 


79 


7 


55 


29 577 


2,366, lai 



HERSCHEL. 



Herschel is the most distant planet from the Sun that has 
vet been discovered. To the naked eye, it appears like a 
star of ODly the 6th or 7th magnitude, and of a pale, bluish 
white ; but it can seldom be seen, except in a very fine, 
clear night, and in the absence of the Moon. 

As it moves over but one degree of its orbit in 85 days, 
It will be seven years in passing over one sign or constella- 
tion. At present,* its mean right ascension is 332^°, and 
its declination 15^° S. It is therefore in the tail of Capri- 
corn, making a small triangle with Deneh and Delta Algedi. 

When first seen by Dr. Herschel, in 1781, i*; was in the 
foot of Gemini ; so that it has not yet completed tu'o thirds 
of a revolution since it was first discovered to he a planet. 

It is remarkable that this body was observ'ed as far back as. 1690. It was 
seen three times by Flamstead, once by Bradley, once by Mayer; and eleven 
times by Lemonnier, who registered it among the stars; but liot one of them 
SQspect'ed it to be a planet. 

The inequalities in the motions of Jupiter and Saturn, 
which could not be accounted for from the mutual attrac- 
tions of these planets, led astronomers to suppose that there 
existed another planet beyond the orbit of Saturn, by whose 
action these irregularities were produced. This conjecture 
was confirmed March 13th, 1781; when Dr. Herschel dis- 
covered the motions of this body, and thus proved it to be a 
planet. 

Herschel is attended by six moons or satellites, which 
revolve about him in different periods, and at various dis- 

* Beginning of the year 1834. 

What is the relative distance of the planet Herschel from the Sun? What is its appear- 
ance to the naked eye ? In what circumstances can it be seen ? What is the rate of ita 
motion in its orbit ? What is its present position ? What was its position when first dis- 
covered to be a planet 1 How much, then, of its revolution has been completed, since it 
was first discovered 7 At how early a date icas this body observed in the heavens? 
Who observed it, before it ioa.s discovered to be a planet 7 How many times xoas it 
teen by them, respectively 7 What did they consider it to be 7 What led astronomen 
to suppose that there existed another planet beyond Saturn? When and by whom wa« 
Henchel discovered to be a planet ? How many moons has it 3 

21 



242 HERSCHEL. 

tances. Four of them were discovered by Dr. Herschel, 
and two by his sister, Miss Caroline Herschel. It is possir 
ble that others remain yet to be discovered. 

Herschel's mean distance from the Sun is 1828 millions of 
miles ; more than twice the mean distance of Saturn. His 
sidereal revolution is performed in 84 years and 1 month, 
and his motion in his orbit is 15.600 miles an hour. He is 
supposed to have a rotation on his axis, in common with the 
other planets; but astronomers have not yet been aole to 
obtain any occular proof of such a motion. 

His diameter is estimated at 34,000 miles ; which would 
make his volume more than 80 times larger than the Earth's. 
To his inhabitants, the Sun appears only the -3--^- part as large 
as he does to us ; and of coarse they receive from him 
only that small proportion of light and heat. It may be 
shown, however, that the -ai-g-part of the Sun's light ex- 
ceeds the illuminating power of 800 full Moons. This add- 
ed to the light they must receive from their six satellites, 
will render their days and nights far from cheerless. 

Such was the :elestial system with which our Earth was 
associated at its creation, distinct from the rest of the starry 
hosts. Whatever may be the comparative antiquity of our 
globe, and the myriads of radiant bodies which nightly gera 
the immense vault above us, it is most reasonable to conclude, 
that the Sun, Earth, and planets, differ little in the date of 
their origin. 

This fact, at least, seems to be philosophically certain, 
that all the bodies which compose our solar system must 
have been placed at one and the same time in that arrange- 
ment, and in tho?e positions m which we now behold them ; 
because all maintain their present stations, and motions, and 
distances, by their mutual action on each other. Neither 
could be where it is, nor move as it does, nor appear as 
we see it, unless they were ail coexistent. The presence 
of each is essential to the system — the Sun to them, they 
to the Sun, and all to each other. This fact is a strong 
indication that their formation was simnhaneous. 

By whom were Herschel's satellites discovered ? What is the distance of Herschel's 
orbit from the Sun ? How much greater is this distance than that of Saturn ? In what 
*itne is his sidereal revolution performed ) What is the rate per hour of his motion in hu 
orbit? Has he a rotation on his axis? What is his diameter estimated to be? How 
nauch larger would this make his volume than the Earth? How much less does the Sun 
appear to be to the inhabitants of Hersch 1, than he does to us ? ^\"hat degree of light and 
heat do they receive from him, compared with that received by the Earth ? To the light 
of bow many full moons is this degree of liglit equal ? What reason have we to suppow 
tbattiie different bodies of the solar system were created at the same time? 



243 



COMETS 



Cornels, whether viewed as ephemeral meteors, or as? 
substantial bodies, forming a part of the Solar system, are 
objects of no ordinary interest. 

When, with uninstructed gaze, we look upwards, to the. 
clear sky of evening, and behold, among the multitudes ol 
heavenly bodies, one, blazing with its long train of light, 
-ind rushing onward towards the centre of our system, we 
insensibly shrink back as if in the presence of a supernatu- 
ral being. 

But when, with the eye of astronomy, we follow it through 
its perihelion, and trace it far oflf, beyond the utmost verge 
of the solar system, till it is lost in the infinity of space, not 
to return for centuries, we are deeply impressed with a 
sence of that power which could create and set in motion 
such bodies. 

Comets are distinguished from the other heavenly bodies, 
by their appearance and motion. The appearance of the 
planets is globular, and their morion around the Sun is near- 
ly in the sanae plane, and from west to east ; but the comets 
have a variety of forms, and their orbits are not confined tu 
any particular part of the heavens ; nor do they observe any 
one general direction. 

The orbits of the planets approach nearly to circles, 
while those of the comets are very elongated ellipses. A 
wire hoop, for example, will represent the orbit of a planet. 
If two opposite sides of the same hoop, be extended, so that 
.s shall be long and narrow, it will then represent the orbit 
of a cornet. The Sun is always in one of the foci of the 
comet's orbit. 

There is, however, a practical difficulty of a peculiar nature which em 
barrasses the solution of the question as to the form of the cometary orbits.. 
It so happens that the only part of the course of a comet which can evei 
be visible, is a portion throughout which the ellipse, the parabola, and hy- 
f erbola, sc closely resemble each other, that no observations can be obtain- 
ed witli sufficient accuracy to enable us to distinguish them. In fact, the ob- 
served path of any comet, while visible, may belong either to an ellipse, pa- 
,rabola, or hyperbola. 

That part which is usually brighter, or more opaque, 
than the other portions of the comet, is called the nucleus. 
This is surrounded by an envelope, which has a cloudy, or 
hairy appearance. These two parts constitute the body, 
and. in many instances, the whole of the comet. 

What feelings does the contemplation of comets naturally excite ? How are cometa 
distinguished trom the other heavenly bodies ? Describe their appearance and motion. 
Of what three parts may comets be considered to be composed ? Describe these part* 
ieverally. 



244 COMETS. 

Must of them, however, are attended by a lone tram, 
called the tail ; though some are without this appendage, 
and as seen by the naked eye, are not easily distinguished 
from the planets. Others, again, have no apparent nucleus, 
and seem to be only globular masses of vapour. 

Nothing is known with certainty of the composition of 
these bodies. The envelope appears to be nothing more 
than vapour, becoming more luminous and transparent when 
approaching the Sun. As the comets pass between us and 
the fixed stars, their envelopes and tails are so thin, that 
stars of very small magnitudes may be seen through them. 
Some comets, having no nucleus, are transparent throughout 
their whole extent. 

The nucleus of a comet sometimes appears opaque, and it 
then resembles a planet. Astronomers, however, are not 
agreed upon this point. Some affirm that the nucleus is 
always transparent, and that comets are in fact nothing 
but a mass of vapour, or less condensed at the centre. 
By others it is mamtained that the nucleus is sometimes 
solid and opaque. It seems probable, however, that there 
are three classes oi comets ; viz. : 1st. Those which have 
no nucleus, being transparent throughout their whole ex- 
tent : 2d. Those whicn nave a transparent nucleus ; and, 
3d. Those having a nucleus which is solid and opaque. 

A comet, when at a distance from the Sun, viewed 
through a good telescope, has the appearance of a dense 
vapour surrounding ine nucleus, and sometimes flowing far 
into the regions of space. As it approaches the Sun, its 
light becomes more oniiiaiit, till it reaches its perihelion, 
when its light is more dazzling than that of any other celes- 
tial body, the Sun excepted. In this part of its orbit are 
seen to the best advantage the phenomena of this wonderful 
body, which has, from remote antiquity, been the spectre 
of alarm and terrour. 

The luminous train of a comet usually follows it, as it 
approaches the Sun, and goes before it, when the comet 
recedes from the Sun ; sometimes the tail is considerably 
curved towards the region to which the comet is tending, 
and in some instances, it has been observed to form a right 
angle with a line drawn from the Sun through the centre 
of the comet. The tail of the comet of 1744, formed near- 
ly a quarter of a circle ; that of 16S9 was curved like a 



COMETS. 245 

Turkish sabre. Sometimes the same comet has several 
taijs. That of 1744 had, at one time, no less than sij7, 
which appeared and disappeared in a few days. The 
•"omet of 1S23 had, for several days, two tails; one ex- 
tending towards the Sun, and the other in the opposite 
direction. 

Comets, in passing among and near the planets, are 
materially drawn aside from their courses, and in some 
cases have their orbits entirely changed. This is remarka- 
bly true in regard to Jupiter, which seems by some strange 
fatality to be constantly in their way, and to serve as a per- 
petual stumbling block to them. 

" The remarkable comet of 1770. which was found by Lexell to revolve in 
a moderate ellipse, in a period of about five years, actually got entangled 
among the satellites of Jupiter, and thrown out of ifs orbit by the attrac- 
tions of that planet." and has not been heard of since. — Hers'chel, p. 310. 
By this extraordinary rencontre, the Uiotions of Jupiter's satellites suffer- 
ed not the least perceptible derangement; — a sufficient proof of the aeriform 
nature of the comet's mass. 

It is clear from observation that comets contain very 
little matter. For they produce little or no effect on the 
motion of the planets when passing near those bodies ; it is 
said that a comet, in 1454, eclipsed the moon ; so that it 
must have been very near the Earth ; yet no sensible effect 
was observed to be produced by this cause, upon the mo- 
tion of the Earth or the Moon. 

The observations of philosophers upon comets, have as 
yet detected nothing of their nature. Tycho Brahe and 
Appian supposed their tails to be produced by the rays of 
the Sun. tiansmitted through the nucleus, which they sup- 
posed to be transparent, and to operate as a lens. Kepler 
thought they were occasioned by the atmosphere of the 
comet, driven off by the impulse of the Sun's rays. This 
opinion, with some modification, was also maintained by 
Euler. Sir Isaac Newton conjectured, that they were a 
thin vapour, rising from the heated nucleus, as smoke as- 
cends from the Earth ; while Dr. Hamilton supposed them 
to be streams of electricity. 

"That the luminous part of a comet," says Sir John Herschel, "is some 
thing in the nature of a smoke, fog, or cloud, suspended in a transparent 
atmosphere, is evident from a fact which has been often noticed, viz. that 



How many tails had the comet of 1744 at one time, and how long did they continue to 
appear ? How many had that of 1S23, and what was their direction ? When comets p«s3 
rear planets, how does the attraction of the planets affect them ? In regard to what pla- 
net is this remarkably tme? Menrion an example of comets being so affected. What 
fact connected wHh thiscase -proves theaeriform nature of the comet's mass? How 
is it clear from observation that comets contain very little matter 7 What were the ooi 
nions of Tycho Brahe, Apoian, Kepler, Euler, Sir Isaac Ne^vton, and Dr. Hamilton, in 
regard to the tails of comets ? \VhaX loas the opinion of Sir John Herschel, and jn 
tohat founded 7 

21* 



246 COMETS. 

the portion of the tail where it comes uj) to, and surrounds the head, is yet 
separated from it by an interval less luminous ; as we often see one layer 
of clouds laid over another with a considerable clear space between them." 
And again — "It follows that these can only be regarded as preat masses ot 
thin vapour, susceptible of being penetrated through their whole substiuic<} 
by the sunbeams." 

Comets have always been considered by the ignorant and 
superstitious, as the harbingers of war, pestilence, and fam- 
ine. Nor has this opinion been, even to this day, confined 
to the unlearned. It was once universal. And when we 
examine the dimensions and appearances of some of these 
bodies, we cease to wonder that they produced universal 
alarm. 

According to the testimony of the early writers, a comet 
which could be seen in day light with the naked eye, made 
its appearance 43 years before the birth of our Saviour. 
This date was just after the death of Ccesar, and by the Ro- 
mans, the comet was believed to be his metamorphosed 
soul, armed with fire and vengeance. This comet is again 
mentioned as appearing in 1106, and then resembling the 
Sun in brightness, being of a great size, and having an im- 
mense tail. 

In the year 1402, a comet was seen, so J^-rilliant as to be 
discerned at noon-day. 

In 1456 a large comet made its appearance. It spread 
a wider terrour than was ever known before. The be- 
lief was very general, among all classes, that the comet 
would destroy the Earth, and that the Day of Judgment was 
at hand ! 

This comet appeared again in the years 1531, 1607, 1682, 1758, and is now 
approaching the Sun with accelerated velocity. It will pass its perihelion in 
November, 1835, and every 75| years thereafter. We now [October, 1835,] see 
this self same comet, so often expelled the Church of Rome, returning tore- 
assert his claim to a fellowship with the solar family. 

At the time of the appearance of this comet, the Turks 
extended their victorious arms across the Hellespont, and 
seemed destined to overrun all Europe. This added not a 
little to the general gloom. Under all these impressions, 
the people seemed totally regardless of the present, and 
anxious only for the future. The Romish Church held at 
this time unbounded sway over the lives, and fortunes, and 
consciences of men. To prepare the world for its expected 
doom, Pope Calixtus III. ordered the Ave Maria to be re- 
peated three times a day, instead of two. He ordered the 
church bells to be rung at noon, which was the origin of 

How have comets been regarded by the ignorant and superstitious 7 Mention some of 
the most remarkable comets which have appeared. Describe them severally, and relate 
m what map«»er they were severally regarded 3 What is the periodic time of this 



COMETS. 247 

that practice, so universal in Christian churches. To the 
Ave Maria, the prayer was added — "Lord, save us from 
tne Devil, the Turk, and the Comet :" and once, each day, 
these three obnoxious personages suffered a regular excom- 
munication. 

The pope and clergy, exhibiting such fear, it is not a 
matter of wonder that it became the ruling passion of the 
multitude. The churches and convents were crowded for 
confession of sins ; and treasures uncounted were poured 
into the Apostolic chamber. 

The comet, after suffering some months of daily cursing 
and excommunication, began to show signs of retreat, and 
soon disappeared from those eyes in which it found no fa- 
vour, Jov and tranquillity soon returned to the faithful sub- 
jects of the pope, but not so their money and lands. 
The people, however, became satisfied that their lives, and 
the safety of the world, had been cheaply purchased. The 
pope, who had achieved so signal a victory oven the mon- 
ster of the sky, had checked the progress of the Turk, and 
kept, for the present, his Satanic majesty at a safe distance; 
wbilpthe Church of Rr^'^e, retaining her unbounded wealth, 
was enabled to continue that influence over her followers, 
which she retains, in part, to this day. 

The comet of 16S0 would have been still more alarm- 
ins: than that of 1456, had not science robbed it of its ter- 
rours, and history pointed to the signal failure of its prede- 
cessor. This comet was of the largest size, and had a 
tail whose enormous length was moie than ninety-six mil- 
lions of miles. 

At its greatest distance, it is 13,000 millions of miles 
from the Sun ; and at its nearest approach, only 574,000 miles 
from his centre ;* or about 130.000 miles from his surface. 
In that part of its orbit which is nearest the Sun, it flies 



* In Brewster's edition of Ferguson, this distance is stated as only 49,000 miles. This 
is evidently a mistake ; for if the comet approached the Sun's centre within 49,000 miles, 
it would penetrate 390,000 miles below the surface ! Taking Ferguson's own elements 
for computing the perihelion distance, the result \\-ill be 4S4,i60 miles. The mistake may 
be accounted for by supposing that the cipher had been omitted in the copy, and the period 
pointed off one figure farther to the left. Yet, with this alteration, it would still be incor- 
rect ; because the Earth's mean distance from the Sun, which is the integer of this calcu- 
lation, is assumed at 82,000,000 of miles. The ratio of the comet's perihelion distance 
from the Sun, to the Earth's mean distance, as given by .M. Pingre, is as 0.00603 to 1. This 
multiplied into 95,273.569, gives 574,500 miles for the comet s perihelion distance from the 
Sun's centre; from which, if we substract his semi-diameter, 443.840 miles, we shall have 
130,660 miles, the distance of the comet from the surface of the Sun. 

Again, if we divide the Earth's mean distance from the Sun, by the comet's perihelion 
distance, we shall find that the latter is only the 1-I66th part of the Earth's distance. Now 
the square of 166 is •27,5.56 ; and this expresses the number of times that the Sun appears 
larger to the comet, in the above situation, than it does to the Earth. SaniRE makes it 
84,5.96 times larger. 

According to Newton, the velocity is 880.000 miles per hour. Mor« recent discoveriea 
jodicate a velocity of 1,240,108 miles per hour. 



248 COMETS. 

with the amazing swiftness of 1,000,000 miles in an hour, 
and the Sun, as seen from it, appears 27,000 times larger than 
It appears to us ; consequently, it is then exposed to a heat 
27,000 times greater than the solar heat at the Earth. This 
intensity of heat exceeds, several thousand times, that of 
red-hot iron, and indeed all the degrees of heat that we are 
able to produce. A simple mass of vapour, exposed to a 
thousandth pai t of such a heat, would be at once dissipated 
in space — a pretty strong indication that, however volatile 
are the elements of which comets are composed, they are, 
nevertheless, capable of enduring an inconceivable intensity 
of both heat and cold. 

This is the comet which, according to the reveries ot 
Dr. Whiston and others, deluged the world in the time of 
Noah. Whiston was the friend and successor of Newton : 
but, anxious to know more than is revealed, he passed the 
bounds of sober philosophy, and presumed not only to fix 
the residence of the damned, but also the nature of their 
punishment. According to his theory, a comet was the 
awful prison-house in which, as it wheeled from the remotest 
regions of darkness and cold into the very vicinity of the 
Sun, hurrying its wretched tenants to the extremes of per- 
ishing cold and devouring fire, the Almighty was to dispense 
the severities of his justice. 

Such theories may be ingenious, but they have no basis 
of facts to rest upon. They more properly belong to the 
chimeras of Astrology, than to the science of Astronomy. 

When we are told by philosophers of great caution and 
high reputation, that the fiery train of the comet, just allud- 
ed to, extended from the horizon to the zenith; and that 
that of 1744 had, at one time, six tails, each 6,000,000 of 
miles long, and that another, which appeared soon after, 
had one 40,000,000 of miles long, and when we consider 
also the inconceivable velocity with which they speed their 
flight through the solar system, we may cease to wonder if, 
in the darker ages, they have been regarded as evil omens 

But these idle phantasies are not peculiar to any age or 
country. Even in our own limes, the beautiful comet of 
1811, the most splendid one of modern times, was generally 
considered among the superstitious, as the dread harbinger 

What is the decree of heat to which the comet of 1680 is exposed, when in its perihelion, 
compared to that experienced at the Earth ? What is thfe intensity of such a degree of 
heat, compared with that of red-hot iron, or with any degree of heat which we are able to 
produce? What inference may be derived from this fact in regard to the composition of 
comets ? "What were the reveries of Dr. Whiston and others in regard to this comet 7 
What facts ought to make us cease to wonder that comets were in darker ae»s consider 
ed as harbingers of evil? Have these phantasies, however, been confined to the dirker 
a^s? Ofwhatevent was the comet of 1811 considered, in our country, to be the b&r- 
mgnt 



COMETS. 249 

of the war which was declared in the following spring. It 
is well known that an-mdefinite apprehension of a more 
dreadful catastrophe lately pervaded both continents, in an- 
ticipation of Biela's comet of 1832. 

The nucleus of the comet of ISll, according to observa- 
tions made near Boston, was 2,617 miles in diameter, cor- 
respoading nearly to the size of the Moon. The brilliancy 
with which it shone, was equal to one tenth of that of the 
Moon. The envelope, or aeriform covering, surrounding 
the nucleus, was 24,000 miles thick, about five hundred 
times as thick as the atmosphere which encircles the Earth; 
making the diameter of the comet, including its envelope, 
50,617 miles. It had a very luminous tail, whose greates 
length was one hundred mUlion of miles. 

This comet moved, in its perihelion, with an almost inconceivable Telocity- 
fifteen hundred times greater than that of a ball bursting from the mouth of a 
cannon. According to Regiomor.tanus, the comet of 1472 moved over an ai; 
of 120^ in one day. Brs'done observed a comet at Palermo in 1770, which pass- 
ed through 50^ of a great circle in the heavens in 24 hours. Another comet, 
which appeared in 1759, passed over 41^ in the same time. The conjecture of 
Dr. Halley therefore seems highly probable, that if a body of such a size, 
having any considerable density, and moving with such a velocity, were to 
strike our Earth, it would instantly redttce it to chaos, mingling its elements 
in ruin. 

The transient effect of a comet passing near the Earth, could scarcely 
amount to any great convulsion, says Dr." Brewster : but if the Eaith were 
actually to receive a shock from one of these bodies, the consequences 
would be awful. A new direction would be given to its rotary motion, and 
it would revolve around a new axis. The seas, forsaking their beds, would 
be hurried, by their centrifugal force, to the new equatorial regions : islands 
and continents, the abodes of men and animals, would be covered by the 
universal rush of the waters to the new equator, and every vestige of hu- 
man industry and genius would be at once destroyed. 

The chances against such an event, however, are so very 
numerous, that there is no reason to dread its occurrence. 
The French government, not long since, called the atten- 
tion of some of her ablest mathematicians and astronomers 
to the solution of this problem ; that is. to determine^ upon 
mathematical principles^ how many chances of collision the 
Earth was exposed to. After a mature examination, they re- 
ported,— -'We have found that, of 231,000,000 of chances, 
there is only ojie unfavourable, — there exists but one which 
can produce a collision between the two bodies." 

"Admitting, then," say they, "for a moment, that the comets which may 
strike the Earth with their nucleuses, would annihilate the whole human 
race ; the danger of death to each ' individual, resulting from the ap- 

Describe this comet. Give some examples of the velocity of comets. What toould 
probabij be the effect upon the Earth, should a comet strike it ? M^at does Dr. Breto- 
tier say wluld be the effect of a comet passins near the Earth? But if the Earth 
Wire ac''Mlly to receive a shock from a comet, lohat does he say would be the resul's ? 
How did the French mathematicians and astronomers find the chances of a collision be- 
tween the Earth and eom?ts to stand 7 V<:hat, then, on the supposition that a stroke of 
u comet lootild annihUare the whole human race, is the denser of death to each in,' 
iiv.duxil, resu'tins from the appearance of an unknoion comet 7 



250 COMETS. 

pearance of an unknotcn comet, would be exactly dnial to the risk he v^outd 
run, if in an urn there was only oyie. s/wi".'.:! white ball among a total num- 
ber of 281,000,000 balls, and that his coiiLifVnnation to death wfuld be the 
inevitable consequence of the white ball being produced at the first draw- 
ing." 

We have before stated that comets, unlike the planets, 
observe no one direction in their orbit?, but appruacn to, and 
recede from their great centre of attraction, in every possi- 
ble direction. Nothing can be more sublime, or better 
calculated to fill the mind with profound astonishment, than 
to contemplate the revolution of comets, while in that part 
of their orbits which comes within the sphere of the tele- 
scope. Some seem to come up from the immeasurable 
depths below the ecliptic, and, having doubled the heavens' 
mighty cape, again plunge downward with their fiery trains, 

" On the long travel of a thousand years." 

Others appear to come down from the zenith of the uni- 
verse to double their perihelion about the Sun, and then re- 
ascend far above all human vision. 

Others are dashing through the solar system in all possi- 
ble directions, and apparently without any undisturbed or 
undisturbing path prescribed by him who guides and sus- 
tains them all. 

Until within a few years, it was universally believed that 
the periods of their revolutions must necessarily be of prodi- 
gious length ; but within a few years, two comets have 
been discovered, whose revolutions are performed, compa- 
ratively, within our own neighbourhood. To distinguish them 
from the iiiore remote, they are denominated the comets of 
a short period. The first was discovered in the constella- 
tion Aquarius, by two French astronomers, in the year 
1786. The same comet- was again observed by Miss Caro- 
line Herschel, in the constellation Cygnus, in 1795, and 
again in 1805. In 1818, Professor Encke determined the 
dimensions of its orbit, and the period of its sidereal revolu- 
tion ; for which reason it has been called '■' Eficke^s Cornet.''^ 

This comet performs its revolution around the Sun in about 
d years and 4 months,* in an elliptical orbit which lies wholly 
within the orbit of Jupiter. Its mean distance from the Sun 
is 2\2 millions of miles j the eccentricity of its orbit is 179 

* Owing to the disturbing influences of the surrounding planets, the periodic return of 
his comet, like that of all others, is liable to be hastened or retarded several days. Ita 
.period varies from about 1203 to 1212 days. 

What is the direction of comets in their orbits ? "What has been, until within a few 
years, the universal opinion in regard tf> the length of the times of their revolution ? Why 
does not the same opinion prevail now ? What are these two comets denominated? Re- 
late the history of the discovery of the first. Why is it called Encke's comet? ^vhali8 
the time of the revolution of Encke's comet ? What is the form of its orbit, and what ita 
position with regard to the orbit of Jupiter? What is this comet's mean distance from 
the Sun? What is the eccentricity ui'\U orbit J 



COMETS. 251 

millions of miles ; consequently it is 358 millions of miles 
nearer the Sun in its perihelion, than it is in its aphelion. 
It was visible throughout the United States in 1825, when 
it presented a fine appearance. It was also observed at its 
next return in 3828; but its last return to its perihelion, on 
the 6th of May, 1832, was invisible in the United States, 
on account of its great southern declination. 

The second " Comet of a short period," was observed 
in 1772 ; and was seen again in 1805. It Tvas not until 
ils re-appearance in 1826, that astronomers were able to 
determine the elements of its orbit, and the exact period of 
Its revolution. This was successfully accomplished by M. 
Biela of Josephstadt ; hence it is called Biela's Comet. 
According to observations made upon it in 1805, by the cele- 
brated Dr. Olbers, its diameter, including its envelope, is 
42.280 miles. It is a curious fact, that the path of Bie- 
la's comet passes very near to that of the Earth ; so near, 
that at the moment the centre of the comet is at the point 
nearest to the Earth's path, the matter of the comet extends 
bevond that path, and includes a portion within it. Thus, if 
the Earth were at that point of its orbit which is nearest to 
the path of the comet, at the same moment that the comet 
should be at that point of its orbit Avhich is nearest to the 
path of the Earth, the Earth would be enveloped in the ne- 
bulous atmosphere of the comet. 

With respect to the effect which might be produced upon 
our atmosphere by such a circumstance, it is impossible to 
oiTer any thing but the most vaafue conjecture. Sir John 
Herschel was able to distinguish stars as minute as the 16th 
or 17th magnitude through the body of the comet ! Hence it 
seems reasonable to infer, that the nebulous matter of which 
it is composed, must be intinitely more attenuated than our 
atmosphere; so that for every particle of cometarr matter 
v\'hich we should inhale, we should inspire m.illions of par- 
ticles of atmospheric air. 

This is the comet which was to come into collision with 
the Earth, and to blot it out from the vSolar System. In re- 
turning to its perihelion, November 26th, 1832, it was com- 
puted that it would cross the Earth's orbit at a distance of 

Hnw much nearer the Sun, then, is the comet, when in its perihelion than when ia its 
aphelion 7 In what years has this comet bet n seen in the United States ? Why was H 
not visible in the United States at the time of its return in L83-2 ? Relate the historj' of the 
discovery of the second comet of a short period ? Why is it caUed Biela's comet? 'What, 
according to the observations of Dr. Gibers in :S05, was the diameter of Biela's comet, in- 
cluding the envelope? How near does the path of Bie'a's comet lie to that of the Earth? 
^\"hat would be the elfect upon our atmosphere should the nebulous atmosphere of the 
comet envelope it ? What reason have we to suppose that it is more attenuated than our 
•itmosphere ? It was predicted that thus comet would come into colhsion with 'he 
Earth : what were the grounds of probability that such cui event w 'ild take place, aiid 
i?hy did it not ? 



only 18,500 miles. It is evident that if the Eart\i had been 
in that part of her orbit at the same time with the comet, 
our atmosphere would have mingled with the atmosphere of 
the comet, and the two bodies, perhaps, have come in coniact. 
But the comet passed the Earth's orbit on the 29th of Oc- 
tober, in the 8th degree of Sagittarius, and the Earth did 
not arrive at that point until the 30th of November, which 
was 32 days afterwards. 

If we multiply the number of hours in 32 days, by 68,000 
(the velocity of the Earth per hour.) we shall find that 
the Earth was more than 52,000,000 miles behind the comet 
when it crossed her orbit. Its nearest approach to the 
Earth, at any time, was about 51 millions of miles ; its near- 
est approach to the Sun, was about 83 millions of miles. Its 
mean distance from the Sun, or half the longest axis of its 
orbit, is 337 millions of miles. Its eccentricity is 253 mil- 
lions of miles ; consequently, it is 507 millions of miles 
nearer the Sun in its perihelion than it is in its aphelion. 
The period of its sidereal revolution is 2,460 days, or about 
6f years. 

Although the comets of Encke and Bicla are objects of very great inter- 
est, yet their short periods, the hmited space within which their motion is 
circumscribed, and consequently the very slight disturbance which they 
sustain from the attraction of the planets, render them of less interest to 
physical astronomy than those of longer periods. 

They do not, like them, rush from the invisible and inaccessible depths 
of sjjace, and. after sweeping our system, depart to distances w^ith the con- 
ception of which the imagination itself is confounded. They possess none 
of that grandeur which is connected with whatever appears to break 
through the fixed order of the universe. It is reserved for the comet ol 
Halley alone to afford the prouilest triumph to those powers of calculation 
by which we are enabled to follow it in the depths of space, two thousand 
millions of miles beyond the extreme verge of the solar system ; and, not- 
witlistanding disturbances which render each succeeding period of its return 
different from the last, to foretel that return witli precision. 

The following representation of the entire orbit ofBiela'g 
comet, was obtained from the Astronomer Royal of the 
Greenwich Observatory. It shows not only the space and 
position it occupies in the solar system, but the points where 
its orbit intersects all the planetary orbits through which it 
passes. By this, it is seen that its perihelion lies between 
the orbits of the Earth and Venus, while its aphelion extends 
a little beyond that of Jupiter. 

What was its nearest approach to the Earth at any time ? What its nearest appro?<cV 
to the Sun ? What its mean distance from the .Sun? What its eccentricity? What, 
then, is the difference between iw perihelion and aphelion distances ? What is the pcrioV 
ofits sidereal revolution ? Why are t.'is c/iuets of Encke and Biela objecrs of leu* intA 
rest to physical astronomy thari those of longer periods 7 What is the situatiou of tb» 
jrbit of Biela's comet in the solar system 7 



COMETS. 
Pig. 20. 



S$3 



r ^> 




254 COMETS. 

This diagram not only exhibits the course of the cornet 
at its last return, but also denotes its future positions on the 
first day of every year during its next revolution. It is also 
apparent that it will return to its perihelion again in the 
autumn of 1839, but not so immediately in our vicinity as 
to be the proper cause of alarni. To be able to predict the 
very day and circun:istances of the return of such a bodi- 
less and eccentiic wanderer, after the lapse of so many 
years, evinces a perfection of the astronomical calculus that 
may justly challenge our admiration. 

"The re-appearance of this comet," says Herschel, 
" whose return in 1S32 was made the subject of elaborate 
calculations by mathematicians of the first eminence, did 
not disappoint the expectation of astronomers. It is hardly 
possible to imagine any thing more striiving than the ap- 
pearance, after the lapse of nearly seven years, of sucii an 
all but imperceptible cloud or wisp of vapour, tnie^ however 
to its predicted lime and place^ and obeying laws like those 
which regulate the planets." 

Herschel, whose Observatory is at. Slough, England, observed the daily 
progress of ihis comet from the 2^.th of September, until its disappearancej 
compared its actual position from day to day with its calculated position, 
and found them to agree within four or five minutes of time in right ascen- 
sion, and within a few seconds of declination. Its position, then, as repre- 
sented on a planisphere which the author prepared for his pupils, and af- 
terwards published, was true to within a less space than one third of its 
projected diameter. LiJte some other^that have been obsei-ved, this comet 
has no luminous train by which it can be easily recognized by the naked eye, 
except when it is very near the Sun. This is the reason why it was not more 
generally observed at its late return. 

Although this comet is usually denominated " Biela's comet," yet it seems 
that M. Gambart, director of the Observatory at Marseilles, is equally en 
titled to* the honour of identifying it with the comet of 1772, and of 1805. 
He discovered it only 10 days after Biela, and immediately set about calcu- 
lating its elements from hij own observations, which are thought to equal, 
if they do not surpass, in point of accuracy, those of every other as- 
tronomer. 

Up to the beginning of the 17th century, no correct no 
tions had been entertained in respect to the paths of comets. 
Kepler's first conjecture was that they moved in straight 
lines; but as that did not agree with observation, he next 
concluded that they were parabolic curves, having the Sun 
near the vertex, and running indefinitely into the regions ot 
space at both extremities. There was nothing in the ob- 
servations of the earlier astronomers to fix their identity, or 
to lead him to suspect that any one of them had ever been 
seen before ; much less that they formed a part of the solar 

"When will this comet return again ? How vmch did its actual position from day to 
day, as observed brj Herschel, differ from its cahuiuted 'position 7 Why was it not 
more generally observed at its late return ? What astronomer besides liie.la identi- 
fied it mith the cmnet of 1772 and 1805 ? What were the opinions of astronomers in re- 
gard to the paths of comets, up to the beginning of the 17th century ? Wliat were Kepier'i 
«H)inioiis on Miis subject? 



COMETS. 255 

system, revolving about tne Sun in elliptical orbits that re- 
turned into themselves. 

This grand discovery was reserved for one of the most 
industrious and sagacious astronomers that ever lived — this 
was Dr. Halley, the contemporary and friend of Newton. 
When the comet of 1682 made its appearance, he set him- 
self about observing it with great care, and found there was, 
a wonderful resemblance between it and three other comets 
that he found recorded, the comets of 1456, of 1531, and 
1607. The times of their appearance had been nearly at 
equal and regular intervals ; their perihelion distances were 
nearly the same; and he finally proved them to be one and 
the same comet, performing its circuit around the Sun in a 
period varying a little from 76 years. This is therefore 
called Hailey^s comet. It is the very same comet that filled 
the eastern world with so much consternation in 1456, and 
became an object of such abhorrence to the church of 
Rome. 

Of all the comets which have been observed since the 
Christian era, only three have had their elements so well 
determined that astronomers are able to fix the period of 
their revolution, and to predict the time and circumstances 
of their appearance. These three are, Encke's, whose last 
revolution about the Sun was performed in 1212 days; 
Biela's, whose period was 2461 days; and Halley's, which is 
DOW accomplishing its broad circuit in about 28,000 days. 
Encke's and Halley's will return to their perihelion the 
present year (1S35), and Biela's in 1839. 

Halley's comet, true to its predicted time and place, is now (Oct. 1835,) 
visible in tlie evening slcy. But we behold none of tliose phenomena which 
threw our ancestors of the middle ases into agonies of superstitious terrour. 
We see not the comet a hor rend a magnitudiyiis, as it appeared in 1305. nor 
thai tail of enormous length which, In 1456. extended over two thirds of 
the interval between the horizon and the zenith, nor even a star as brilliant 
as was the same comet in 16S2, with its tail of 30°. 

Its mean distance from the Sun is 1.713,700.000 miles : the eccentricity of 
its orbit is 1,655,000,000 miles; consequently it is 3.316,000,000 miles "far- 
ther from the Sun in its aphelion than it is in its perihelion. In the latter 
case, its distance from him is only 55.700,000 miles ; but in the former, u is 
3,371,700.000 miles Therefore, 'hough its aphelion distance be great, its 
mean distance is less than that of Herschel ; and great as is the aphelion 
distance, it Is but a very small fraction less than onefve-thnusandth part of 
that distance from the Sun, beyond which the very nearest of tho fixed 
stars must be situated; and, as "the determination oi .heir distance is nega- 

Who first discovered the identity of comets ? Relate the manner by which he came to 
this discovery. How many of all the comets observed since the Christian era, hive had 
their elements so well determined, that astronomers are able to fix the period of their re- 
volutions, and to predict the time and circumstances of their appearance ? What cometa 
are these ? In what time do they accomplish their revolutions ? "When will Jieyj seve- 
rally, return to their perihelion 7 Mliat comet is now {Oct. 1835) visible? Whr.t art 
(he mean, and tfie aphelion andperih^Jion distances of Halley's comet from thei\^n 7 
miat part of the distance beyond which the nearest of the fixed stars mtist Jt pla- 
ced, is its aphelion distance ? 



25ft LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION 

tlve and not positive, the nearest of thein may be at twice or ten timea thai 
distance. 

The nuHiber of comets which have been observed since the Chiistian 
era, amounts to 700 Scarcely a year has passed wifho'it the observation 
ol one or two. And since multitudes of them must escape observation, by 
reason of their traversing that part of the heavens which is above the hori- 
zon in the day time, their whole number is probably many thousands. 
Comets so circumstanced, can only become visible by the rare coincidence 
of a total eclipse of the Sun — a coincidence which happened, as related by 
Seneca, 60 years before Christ, when a large comet was actually observed 
very near the Sun. 

But M. Arago reasons in the following manner, with respect to the num- 
ber of cocnets : — Tlie number of ascertained comers, which, at their l.:ast 
distances, pass within the orbit of Mercury, is thirty. Assuming that the 
comets are unilbrmly distributed throughout the solar system, there wilj 
be 117,6-19 limes as many comets included within the oibit of Herschel, as 
there are within the orbit of Mercury. But as there are 30 within the orbit 
of .Mercury, there must be 3.'529,470 within the orbit of Herschel! 

Of 97 comets whose elements have been calculated by astronomers, 24 
passed between the Sun and the orbit of Mercury ; 33 between the orbits of 
Mercury and Venus; 21 between the orbits of Venus and the Earth; 15 
between the orbits of Ceres and Jupiter. Forty-nine of these cornels move 
from east to west, and 48 in the opposite direction. 

The total number of distinct comets, whose paths during the visible part of 
tlieir course had been ascertained, up to the year 1832, was one hundred and 
thirty-seven. 

What regions these bodies visit,. when they pass beyond 
the limits of our view ; upon what errands ihey come, when 
they again revisit the central parts of our system ; what 
is the difference between their physical constitution and that 
of the Sun and planets ; and what important ends ihey are 
destined to accomplish, in the economy of the universe, are 
inquiries which naturally arise in the mind, but which sur- 
pass the limited powers of the human understanding at pre- 
sent to determine. 



CHAPTER XX. 

OF THE FORCES BY WHICH THE PLANETS ARE 
RETAINED IN THEIR ORBITS. 

Having described the real and apparent motions cf the 
bodies which compose the solar system, it may be interest- 
ing next to show, that these motions, however varied or com- 
plex ihey may seem, all result from one simple principle, oi 
law, namely, the 

What M Ifie number of comets tchich have been observed /tince the Christian eral 
Why mvst some of them escape observation 1 How great is probablij their actual 
number? In what case alane can comets which travers-- the horizon in the day 
time become risible? Mention an instance cf a annet thus becoming visible 1 
What is the reisoning of M. Ara^o in regard to the number nf c^nets / Describe 
the track among the orbi's of the planets, of the 97 comers whose elements hare been 
calculated by astronomers. In ichat direction do they move ? What, up to the year 
1832, xoas the tohole number of distinct comets, whose path, during the vUibie part 
of their course, has been determined ? By what principle, or law, are the planets re- 
gained in •heir orbits ) 



LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 8:'^7 



LAW OF UNIVERSAL Gr'AVITATION. 

It IS said, that Sir Isaac Newton, when he was di awing 
to a close the demonstration of the great truth, that gravity- 
is the cause which keeps the heavenly bodies in their orbits, 
was so much agitated with the magnitude and importance of 
the discovery he was about to make, that he was unable to 
proceed, and desired a friend to finish wiiat the intensity of 
ins feelings did not allow him to do. By graviiationis meant, 
that universal law of attraction, by which every particle of 
matter in the system has a tendency to every other paiticle. 

This attraction, or tendency of bodies towards each other, 
is in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain. The 
Earth, being immensely large in comparison with all other 
substances in its vicinity, destroys the effect of this attrac- 
tion between smaller bodies, by bringing them all to itself. 

The attraction of gravitation is reciprocal. All bodies not 
only attract other bodies, but are themselves attracted, and 
both according to their respective quantities of matter 
The Sun, the largest body in our system, attracts the Earth 
and all the other planets, while they in turn attract the Sun. 
The Earth, also, attracts the Moon, and she in turn at' 
tracts the Earth. A bail, thrown upwards from the 
Earth, is brought again to its surface : the Earth's attraction 
not only counterbalancing that of the ball, but also producing 
a motion of the ball towards itself. 

This disposition, or tendency towards the Earth, is mani- 
fested in whatever falls, whether it be a pebble from the 
hand, an apple from a tree, or an avalanche from a moun- 
tain. All terrestrial bodies, not excepting the waters of the 
ocean, gravitate towards the centre of the Earth, and it is 
by the same power that animals on all parts of the globe 
stand with their feet pointing to its centre. 

The power of terrestrial gravitation is greatest at the earth's 
surface, whence it decreases both upwards and downwards ; 
but not both ways in the same proportion. It decreases 
upwards as the square of the distance t>om the Earth's centre 
ncreases ; so that at a distance from the centre equal to 
twice the semi-diameter of the Earth, the gravitating force 
would be only one fourth of what it is at the surface. But 
below the surface, it decreases in the direct ratio of the dis 

Who discovered this great truth, and how was he affected in view of it? What is 
meant by gravitation? To what is it proportioned? Give some example. How is it 
known that the attraction of gravitation is reciprocal •« Give some examples to iilustrata 
this principle. Where is tlie power of terrestrial gravitation the greatt"5t? From thia 
point, does the power decrease equally, both upwards and downwardly? What 15 ihe 
law of decrease upwards 7 Give an example. What is the law of dcreasv downioards ? 
Give an example. 

25* 



258 LAW OF UNIVERSAL GiiAVITATION. 

tance from the centre ; so that at a distance of halt a semi 
diameter from the centre, the gravitating force is but half 
what it is at the surface. 

Weight and Gravity, in this case, are synonymous terms. 
We say a piece of lead weighs a pound, or 16 ounces ; but if 
by any means it could be raised 4000 miles above the surface 
of the Earth, which is about the distance of the surface from 
the centre, and consequently equal to two semi-diameters of 
the Earth above its centre, it would weigh only one fourth of 
a pound, or four ounces ; and if the same weight could be 
raised to an elevation of 12,000 miles above the surface, or 
four semi-diameters above the centre of the Earth, it would 
there weigh only one sixteenth of a pound, or one ounce. 

The same body, at the centre of the Earth, being equally 
attracted in every direction, would be Avithout weight ; at 
1000 miles from the centre it would weigh one fourth of a 
pound; at 2000 miles, one half of a pound ; at 3000 miles, 
three fourths of a pound ; and at 4000 miles, or at the sur- 
face, one pound. 

It is a universal law of attraction, that its power decreases as the square of 
the distance increases. The converse of this is also true, viz. The power 
increases, as the square of the distance decreases. Giving to this law the form 
of a practical rule, it will stand thus : 

The gravity of bodies above the surface of the Earth, decreases in a dupli 
cate ratio, {or as the squares of their distances) in semi-diameters of the earth, 
from the earth's centre. That is, wlien the gravity is increasing, multiply 
the weight by the square of the distance ; but when the gravity is decreasing., 
divide the weight by the square of the distance. 

Suppose a body weighs 40 pounds at 2000 miles above the Earth's sur- 
face, what would it weigh ^tthe surface, estimating the Earth's semi-diameter 
at 4000 miles 7 From the centre to the given height, is 1^ semi-diameters : 
the square of l^, or Lois 2.25, wliich, multiplied into the weight, (40.) gives 90 
pounds, the answer. 

Suppose a body which weighs 256 pounds upon the surface of tlie Earth, 
be raised to the distance of the iMoon, (240,000 miles,) what would be its 
weigiit. Thus, 4000)240,000(60 semi diameters, the square of which is 3C00. 
As the gravity, in this case, is decreasing, divide the weight by the square of 
the di.stance, and it will give 3600)256(l-16th of apound, or 1 ounce. 

2. To find to what height a given weight must be raised to lose a certain 
portion of its weight. 

Rvi.E.— Divide the weight at the surface, by the required weight, and ex- 
tract the square root of the quotient. Ex. A boy weighs 100 poinids, how high 
must he be carried to weigh but 4 pounds? Tlius, 100 divided by 4. gives 
25, the square root of which is 5 semi-diameters, or 20,000 miles above the 
centre. 

Bodies of equal magnitude do not always contain equal 

What is the relation between weight and gravity? Illustrate it by some exan-.plea. 
What, then, is the general law in regard to the increase and decrease of attraction; 
Hoio may this law be expressed, in the form of a practical rule I Supp se, for ex- 
ample, he semi-diameter of the Earth be es'imated, in round number.i, at 4000 w iles, 
and th U a body, elevated 2000 miles abwe its surface, ahou'd weigh 40 pounds, what 
would the same body loeigh, if brought to the Earth's surface? Suppose a body 
which loeighi 256 pounds upon the surfta of the Earth, be raised to the distance oj 
tilt, Moon, what loould be its weight at such an elevation ? [The (lupil should be re- 
quired to give the calculation, as well a.s the answer.] Bi/ what rule can we determine 
the height to which a body must be raised, in order to its losing a certain portion of 
its weight I Give an example. Do bodies of the same magnitude always contaio equal 
quantities of matter? 



LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 255 

quantities of matter ; a ball of cork, of equal bulk with one 
ol lead, contains less matter, because it is more porous. The 
Sun, though fourteen hundred thousmid times larger than 
the Earth, being much less dense, contains a quantity of 
matter only 355,000 times as great, and hence attracts the 
Earth with a force only 355,000 times greater than thai 
with which the Earth attracts the Sun. 

The quantity of matter in the Sun is 780 times greater 
than that of all the planets and satellites belonging to the 
Solar System; consequently their whole united force of at- 
traction is 780 times less upon the Sun, than that of the 
Sun upon them. 

The Centre of Gravity of a body, is that point in which 
its whole weight is concentrated, and upon which it would 
rest, if freely suspended. If two weights, one of ten pounds, 
the other of one pound, be connected together by a rod 
eleven feet long, nicely poised on a centre, and then be thrown 
into a free rotary motion, the heaviest will move in a circle 
with a radius of one foot, and the lightest will describe a cir- 
cle with a radius of ten feet : the centre around which they 
move is their common centre of gravity. See the Figure. 

Thus the Sun and planets move around an imaginary 
point as a centre, always preserving an equilibrium. 

CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 

Fig. 21. 




If there were but one body in the universe, provided it 
were of uniform density, the centre of it would be the centre 
of gravity towards which all the surrounding portions would 
uniformly tend, and they would thereby balance each other. 
Thus the centre of gravity, and the body itself, would for- 
ever remain at rest. It would neither move up nor down ; 
there being no other body to draw it in any direction. 
In this case, the terms up and down would have no meaning, 



What are the comparative bulks and densities of the Sun and the Earth ? How great is 
the quantity of matter in the Sun, compared with that of all the planets belonging to the 
solar system? What is the cejitre of gravity of a body? Give an example. How does 
this illustration apply to planetary motion ? If there were but one single body in the uni- 
verse, where would the centre of gravity be? What motion would the body have? What 
wouH the terms up and d<ywn, in such case, mean? 



260 ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES. 

except '^A applied to the body itself, to express the direction 
of the surface from the centre. 

Were the Earth the only body revolving about the Sun, 
as the Sun's quantity of matter is 355.000 times as great aa 
that of the Earth, the Sun would revolve in a circle equal 
only to the three hundred andjjfty-jive thousandth part of 
the Earth's distance from it : but as the planets in their seve- 
ral orbits vary their positions, the centre of gravity is not 
always at the same distance from the Sun. 

The quantity of matter in the Sun so far exceeds that of 
all the planets together, that were they all on ooe side of him 
he would never be more than his own diameter from the 
common centre of gravity ; the Sun is therefore justly con 
sidered as the centre of the system. 

The quantity of matter in the Earth being about 80 times 
as great as that of the Moon, their common centre of gravity 
is SO times nearer the former than the latter, which is about 
3000 miles from the Earth's centre. 

The secondary planets are governed by the same laws 
as their primaries, and both together move around a com- 
mon centre of gravity. 

Every system in the universe is supposed tp revolve, in 
like manner, around one common centre. 



ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES. 

All simple motion is naturally rectilinear; that is, all 
bodies put in motion would continue to go forward in straight 
lines, as long as they met with no resistance or diverting 
force. 

On the other hand, the Sun, from his immense size, would, 
by the power of attraction, draw all the planets to him, if 
his attractive force were not counterbalanced by the primi- 
tive impulse of the planetary bodies to move in straight lines. 

The attractive power of a body drawing another body 
towards the centre, is denominated Centripetal force ; and 
the tendency of a revolving body to iU from, the centre in 
a tangent line, is called the Projectile or Centrifugal force 
The joint action of these two central /orres gives the planets 

If the Earth were the only body revolving about the Sun, what would be their relativf 
distances from their common centre of gravity ? If instead of the Earth alone, the Earth 
with all the frJanets and satellites of the system were on one side, and the Sun alone on 
the other, at what distance from their common centre of gravity must the r5un l>e, i<j bal- 
ance them all? Where is the centre of gravity between the Earth and Moon ? How do 
you know this ? By what laws are the secondary planets governed, and the other systemi 
of the universe? What is meant by all simple motion bemg rectilinear? Wiiy does po 
the Sun, by its great attraction, bring all bodies to its surface? Explain what is meanJ 
by cent-ipetal and centrifugal forces. What results from the joipt action of these twc 
foiccs ? 



ATTRACTIVE AND PROJECTILE FORCES. 261 

a circular motion, and retains them in their orbits as thev 
revolve, the primaries about the Sun, and the secondaries 
about their primaries. 

The degree of the Sun's attractive power at each particu- 
lar planet, whatever be its distance, is uniformly equal to 
the centrifugal force of the planet. The nearer any plan- 
et is to the Sun, the more strongly is it attracted by him ; 
the farther any planet is from the Sun, the less is it at- 
tracted by him ; therefore, those planets which are the near- 
er to the Sun must move the faster in their orbits, in oruer 
thereby to acquire centrifugal forces equal to the power of 
the Sun's attraction ; and those which are the farther from 
the Sun must move the slower, in order that they may no* 
have too great a degree of centrifugal force, for the weaker 
attraction of the Sun at those distances. 

The discovery of these great truths, by Kepler and New- 
ton, established the universal law of planetary motion ; 
which may be stated as follows : 

1. Every planet moves in its orbit with a velocity vary- 
ing every instant, in consequence of two forces ; one tending 
io the centre of the Sun, and the other in the direction of a 
tangent to its orbit, arising from the primitive impulse given 
at the time it was launched into space. The former is call- 
ed its Centripetal^ the latter, its Centrifuga' force. Should 
the centrifugal force cease, the planet would fall to the Sun 
by its gravity ; were the Sun not to attract it, it would fly 
off from its orbit in a straight line. 

2. By the time a planet has reached its aphelion, or that 
point of its orbit which is farthest from the Sun, his attrac- 
tion has overcome its velocity, and draws it towards him 
v/itb such an accelerated motion, that it at last overcomes 
the Sun's attraction, and shoots past him; then gradually 
decreasing in velocity, it arrives at the perihelion, when the 
Sun's attraction again prevails. 

3. However ponderous or light, large or small, near or 
remote, the planets may be, their motion is always such 
that imaginary lines joining their centres to the Sun, pass 
over equal areas in equal times : and this is true not only 
with respect to the areas described every hour by the same 
planet, but the agreement holds, with rigid exactness, be- 
tween the areas described in the same time, by all the plan- 
ets and comets belonging to the Solar System. 

From the foregoing principles, it follows, that the force of gravity, and 
the centrifugal force, are mutual opposi-ng powers — each continually acting 

To what is the Sun's attractive ro^er at each particular planet equal? Explain this 
more fully. By whom was the universa. aw of planetary motion established ? Repeat 
1^ law. 



262 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, AC. 

against the other. Thus, the weight of bodies, on the Earth's equator, ta 
diminished by the centrifugal force of her diurnal rotation, in the prtpor- 
lion of one pound for every 290 pounds: that is, liad the Earth no motion 
on her a.\is. all bodies on the equator would weigh one two hundred and 
eighty-ninth part more than they now do. 

On the contrary, if her diurnal motion were accelerated, the centrifugal 
force would be proportionnlly increased, and the weight of bodies at the 
equator would be, in the same ratio, diminished. ShouM the Earth revolve 
upon its axis, witli a velocity which would make the day but 84 minutes long, 
in.stead of 24 hours, the centrifugal force would counterbalance that ofgr-lvity, 
and all bodies at the equator would then be absolutely destitute of weight; 
and if the centrifugal lorce were further augmented, (the Earth revolving 
in less time than 81 minutes.) gravitation would be completely overpoweretl^ 
and all fluids and loose substances near the equator would fly off from the 
surface. 

The weight of bodies, either upon the Earth, or on any other planet having 
amotion aroimd its axis, depends jointly upon the nia.5s of the planet, arid 
its diurnal velocity. A body weighing one pound upon the equator of the 
Earth, would weigh, if removed to the^equator of the Sun, 27.9 lbs. Of Mer- 
cury, 1.03 lbs. Of Venus, 0.98 lbs. Of the Moon, \ lb. Of Mars, \ lb. Of 
Jupiter, 2.716 lbs. Of Saturn, 1.01 lbs. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES-OBLIQUITY OF 
THE ECLIPTIC. 

Of all the motions which are going forward in the Solar 
System, there is none, which it is important to notice, more 
difficult to comprehend, or to explain, than the precession 
OF THE EQUINOXES, as it is termed. 

The equinoxes, as we have learned, are the two opposite 
points in the Earth's orbit, where it crosses the equator. 
The first is in Aries ; the other, in Libra. B}'- the preces- 
sion of the equinoxes is meant, that the intersection of the 
equator with the ecliptic is not always in the same point: — 
in other words, that the Sun, in its apparent annual course, 
does not cross the equinoctial, Spring anti Autumn, exactly 
in the same points, but every year a little behind those of 
the preceding year. 

This annual falling back of the equinoctical points, is call- 
ed by astronomers, with reference to the motion of the 
heavens, the Precession of the Equinoxes ; but it would bet- 
ter accord with fact as well as the apprehension of the learn- 
Br, to call it, as it is, the Recession of the Equinoxes : for the 
equinoctial points do actually recef/e upon the ecliptic, at the 
rate of about 50y of a degree every year. It is the name 

How is the weight of bodies on the Earth's equator affected by its diurnal rotation 7 
What would be the effect if the diurnal motion of the karth roere accelerated 1 W'Kat 
would be the consequence if the Earth revolved about its axis in 84 minutes, ci in 
to* time 1 What are the equinoxes ? What is meant by the precession of the equinoxes I 

hy is it called preteaaion of the equinoxes, and what would be a better term? 



PRECESSION OF THE EaUINOXES, AC. 



263 




only, and not the position, of the equinoxes which remains 
[lermanent. Whei^ever the Sun crosses the equinoctial in 
the spring there is the vernal equinox ; and whi-^ever he 
crosses it in the autumn there is the autumnal equinox, 
and these points are constantly moving to the west. 
Fig. 22. 

To render this subject fa- 
miliar, we will suppose two 
carriage roads, extending 
quire around tiie Earth ; one, 
representing the equator, 
running due east and west; 
and the other, representing 
the ecliptic, running nearly 
in the same direction as the 
former, yet so as to cross it 
wirh a small angle, (say of 
23i'^,) both at" the point 
^hore we now stand, for in- 
stance, and in the nadir, 
exacily opposite ; let there 
also be and her road, to 
represent the prime meridi- 
an, running north and south, 
and crossing the first at 
right angles, in the common 
point of intersection, as in 
tlie annexed figure. 

Let a carriage now start 
from this point of intersec- 
tion, not in the road leading 

directly east, but along that of the ecliptic, which leaves the former a little to 
the niirrh, and let a person be placed to watch when the carriage comes 
avonnii again, after liaving made the circuit of the Earth, and see whether the 
carriage will cross the equinoctial road again precisely in the same track 
as when it left the goal. Though the personstood exactly in the former track, 
ho need not fear being run over, for the carriage wih cross the road 100 roda 
west of him. that is, TOQ rods west of the meridian on which he stood. It 
is to be observed, that 100 rods on the equator is equal to 50j seconds oi a 
degree. 

if the carriage still continue to go around the Earth, it will, on completing 
its second circuit, cross the equinoctial path 200 rods west of the meridian 
whence it first setr«<-; on the third circuit. 300 I'ods west; on the fourth 
circuir. 400 rods, and .-o on. continually. After 7lf circuits, the point of m- 
teri^ecrion would be one degree west of its place at the commencement of 
the route. At this rate it v/ould be easy to determine hnw many complete 
circuits the carriags must perform before this continual fading back of the 
intersecting point would have retreated over every degree of the orbit, upti] 
it reached asain the point from whence.it first departed. The application of 
this illustration will be manifest, when we consider, furiher, that, 

The Sun revolves from one equinox to the same equinox 
asfain, in 365d. 5h. 4S' 47''.81. This constitutes the natu- 
ral, or tropical year, because, -in this period, one revolution 
of the seasons is exactly completed. But it is, mean- 

The equinoctial points are continually moving ; how. then, is their position defined. 
Gfve, at length, a famiUar ilhistration by which this subject may be understood. 
Suppose the carriage co .tinues its circuit around the earth, loiiere toould it cross 
the e-guinocriaJ the -id, 3d. and ith times, <^c. ? After how many circuits loould thia 
failing back of the equinoctial points amount to one degree on the ecliptic ^ In what 
time does the Sun revolve from one equinox to the same ea,uinox again ? "What is this 
Period called? 



BC4 PRECESSION OF THE EaUINOXES, &C. 

while, to be borne in mind, that the equinox itself, during 
this period, has not kept its position annong the stars, but 
has deserted its place, and fallen back a little way to meet 
the Sun; whereby the Sun has arrived at the equinox before 
he has arrived at the same position among the stars from 
which he departed the year before; and consequently, must 
perform as much more than barely a tropical revolution, to 
reach that point again. 

To pass over this interval, which completes the Sim'' s side- 
real revolution, takes (20'. 22". 94) about 22 minutes and 23 
seconds longer. By adding 22 minutes and 23 seconds to 
the time of a tropical revolution, we obtain 365d. 6h. 9m. 
lOf s. for the length of a sidereal revolution ; or the time 
in which the Sun revolves from one fixed star to the same 
star again. 

As the Sun describes the whole ecliptic, or 360°, in a trop- 
ical year, he moves over 59' 8^'' of a degree every day, at a 
mean rate, which is equal to oOy of a degree in 20 min- 
utes and 23 seconds of time ; consequently he will arrive at 
the same equinox or solstice when he is 50V' of a degree 
short of the same star or fixed poin in the heavens, from 
which he set out the year before. So that, with respect to 
the fixed stars, the Sun and equinoctial points fall back, as 
it were, 1° in 71f years. This will make the stars appear 
to have gone forward. 1°, with respect to the signs in the 
ecliptic, in that lime : for it must be observed, that the same 
signs always keep in the same points of the ecliptic, with- 
out regard to Iheplace of the constellations Hence it be- 
comes necessary to have new plates engraed for celes- 
tial globes and maps, at least once in 50 years, in order to 
exhibit truly the altered position of the stars. At the pres- 
nt rate of motion, the recessionof the equinoxes, as it should 
e called, or the precession of the stars, amounts to 30", or 
one whole sign, in 2140 years. 

Why is it so called ? Does the equinox remain stationary during this period? What 
lesuits from this ? How long does it take the Sun to pass over the interval through which 
the equinox has thus retreated ? What is the length of a sidereal revolution, and how is 
it determined ? What [Kjrtion of the ecliptic does the Sun describe, at a mean rate, every 
day 1 What portion does it describe in 20 minute.s and -^3 seconds l W the Sun and equi- 
noctial points fall back in the ecliptic 50 1-4" of a degree every year, how many years belore 
this regression will amount to a degree? How will this affect the appearance of the 
stars What practical inconvenience results from this fact? hi what period of time doe« 
the precession of the stars amount to 30", or one whole sign ? 



PRECESSION OF THE EdUINOXES, &C. 



265 



MOTION OF THE STARS. 

Fig 23. 




To erplain this by a figure ; Suppose the Sun to have been in conjunction 
with a filed star at S, in the first degree of Taurus, (the second sign of tiie 
ecliptic,) 340 years before the birth of our Saviour, or about the 17th year of 
Alexander the Great ; then having made 2140 revolutions through the ecliptic, 
he would be found again at tlie end of so many sidereal years at S; but at 
the end of so many Julian years, he would be found at J, and at the end of 
so many tropical years, which would bring it down to the beginning of the 
present century, he would be found at T, in the first degree of Aries, which 
has receded from S to T in tliat time by the precession of the equinoc- 
tial points Aries and Libra. The arc S T would be equal to the amount of 
the precession (for precession we must still call it) of the equinox in 2140 
years, at the rate of 50." 23-572 of a degree, or 20 minutes and 23 seconds of 
time annually, as above stated. 

From the constant retrogradation of the equinoctial points, 
and with them of all the signs of the ecliptic, it follows that 
the longitude of the stars must continually increase. The 
tame cause affects also iheix right ascension and declination. 
Hence, those stars which, in the infancy of astronomy were 
in the sign Aries^ we now find in Taurus ; and those which 
were in Taurus^ we now find in Gemini, and so on. Hence 
likewise it is, that the star which rose or set at any particu- 
lar time of the year, in the time of Hesiod, Eudoxus, Virgil, 
Pliny, and others, by no means answers at this time to their 
descriptions. 



Errptezn this hy a diagram. How does the retrogradation of the equinoctial point* 
aifeot the longitude of the stars ? Does the same cause extend to their right ascension 
and declination also ? How is this rendered apparent] 

23 



£6G PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, «*C. 

Hesi&d, in his Opera et Dies, lib. ii. verse 185, says: 

When from the solstice sixty wintry days 

Their turns have finish'd, mark, witli glitt'ring rays, 

From Ocean's sacred flood, Arcturus rise, 

Then first to gild the dusky evening skies. 
But Arcturus now rises acronycally in latitude 37° 45' N. the latitud*; * 
Hesiod, and nearly that of Richmond, in Virginia, about 100 days after ih* 
winter solstice. Supposing Hesiod to be correct, there is a ditference of 41 
days, arising from the precession of the equinoxes since the days of Hesiod 
Now as there is no record extant of the exact period of the world w^hon thii 
poet flourished, let us see to what result astronomy will lead us. 

As the Sun moves through about 39° of the ecliptic in 40 days, the wintei 
solstice, in the time of Hesiod, was in the 9th degree of Aquarius. Now es 
timating the precession of the equinoxes at 50|^" in a year; we shall have 
50^" ; 1 year : : 39° : 2794 years since the time of Hesiod ; if we substract from 
this OUT present era, 1836, it will give 058 years before Christ. Lempriere, in 
his Classical Dictionary, says Hesind lived 907 years before Christ See a 
Bimilar calculation for the time of Thales. ^ age 54. 

The retrograde movement of the equinoxes, and the an- 
nual extent of it, were determined by comparing the longitude 
of the same stars, at different intervals of time. The most 
careful and unwearied attention was requisite in order to 
determine the cause and extent of this motion ; — a motion 
so very slow as scarcely to be perceived in an age, and oc- 
cupying not less than 25,000 y.ars in a single revolution. 
It has not yet completed one quarter of its first circuit in 
the heavens since the creation. 

Thus observation has not only determined the abso- 
lute motion of the equinoctial points, but measured its limit ; 
it has also shown that this motion, like the causes which pro- 
duce it, is not uniform in itself: but that it is constantly ac- 
celerated by a slow arithmetical increase of 1" of a degree 
m 4,100 years. — A quantity which, though totally inappre- 
ciable for short periods of time, becomes sensible after a 
lapse of ages. For example : The retrogradation of the 
equinoctial points is now greater by nearlv Y than it was 
in the time of Hipparchus, the first who observed this mo- 
tion ; consequently, the mean tropical year is shorter now by 
about 12 seconds than it was then. For, since the retro- 
gradation of the equinoxes is now every year greater than 
it was then, the Sun has, each year, a space of nearly -^' 
less to pass through in the ecliptic, in order to reach the 
plane of the equator. Now the Sun is 12 seconds o^ time in 
pissing over ^" of space. 

At present, the equinoctial points move backwards, or 
from east to west along the path of the ecliptic at the rate ot 

Mention an example. History does not enable ics to fix the precise age of the worla 
imohich Hesiod flourished; lohat light dors astronomy shed upon this question? 
By .vhat means was the retrogradation of the equinoxes determined ? Mhy was it diffi 
cii't to determine the cause and extent of this motion 7 Not to specify particular cases, 
wnat has obser\ation at length determined, with respect to the limit and uniformity of 
this backward movement of the equinoctial points? Give an example. Why should the 
tropical year, on this account, be shorter now than it was then / What is the present rate 
of motion of the equino<;tial points? 



PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. &C. 267 

1° in 71f years, or one whole sign, in 2140 years. Con- 
linuing at this rate, they will fall back through the whole 
of the 12 signs of the ecliptic in 25,680 years, and thus re- 
turn to the sdme position among the stars, as in the beginning. 

But in determining the period of a complete revolution 
of the equinoctial points, it must be borne in mind that the 
motion itself is continually increasing ; so that the last quar- 
ter of the revolution is accomplished several hundred years 
sooner than the first quarter. Making due allowance for this 
accelerated progress, the revolution of the equinoxes is com- 
pleted in 25,000 years -, or, more exactly, in 24,992 years. < 

Were the motion of the equinoctial points uniform: that 
is, did they pass through equal portions of the ecliptic in 
equal times, they would accomplish their first quarter, or pass 
through i\\e first three signs of the ecliptic, in 6,250 years 
But they are 6,575 years in passing through the first quar- 
ter ; about 218 years less in passing through the second 
quarter; 218 less in passing through the third, and so on. 

The immediate consequence of the precession of the equi- 
noxes, as we have already observed, is a continually pro- 
gressive increase of longitude in all the heavenly bodies. 
For the vernal equinox being the initial point of longitude, 
as well as of right ascension, a retreat of this point on the 
ecliptic tells upon the longitudes of all alike, whether at rest 
or in motion, and produces, so far as its amount extends, the 
appearance of a motion in longitude common to them all, 
OS i/" the whole heavens had a slow rotation around the poles 
of the ecliptic in the long period above mentioned, similar to 
what they have in every twenty-four hours around the poles 
of the equinoctial. As the Sun loses one day in the year 
on the stars, by his direct motion in longitude ; so the equi- 
nox gains one day on them, in 25,000 years, by its retrograde 
motion. 

The cause of this motion was unknown, until Newtoa 
proved that it was a necessary consequence of the rotation 
of the Earth, combined with its elliptical figure, and the un- 
equal attraction of the Sun and Moon on its polar and equa- 
torial regions. There being more matter about the Earth's 
equator than at the poles, the former is more strongly at- 
tracted than the latter, which causes a slight gyratory or 

In what time, continuing at the same rate, will they fall back through the twelve signs 
of the ecliptic ? In determining the exact period of a complete revolution of the equinoctial 
points, what important circumstance must be borne in mind? Making due allowance for 
their accelerated progress, in what time is a revolution of the equinoxes completed? la 
this motion as quick in the first quarter of their revolution as in the last? What is the 
time and difference, of describing each quarter? What is the immediate consequence of 
the precession of the etiuinoxes upon the position of the heavenly bodies? Explain hovr 
this take^ place. Ho^v does this resemble the annual loss of a sidereal day by the Suii? 
What is the cause of tliis motion? 



268 PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES, AC. 

wabbling motion of the poles of the Earth around tnose of 
the ecliptic, like the pin of a top about its centre of motion, 
when it spins a little obliquely to the base. 

The precession of the equinoxes, thus explained, consists 
in a real motion of the pole of the heavens among the stars. 
in a small circle around the pole of the ecliptic as a centre, 
keeping constantly at its present distance of nearly 23^° 
from it, in a direction from east to west, and with a progress 
so very slow as to require 25,000 years to complete the cir- 
cle. During this revolution it is evident that the pole will 
point successively to every part of the small circle in the 
heavens which it thus describes. Now this cannot happen 
without producing corresponding changes in the apparent 
diurnal motion of the sphere, and in the aspect which the 
heavens must present at remote periods of time. 

The effect of such a motion on the aspect of the hea- 
vens, IS seen in the apparent approach of some stars and con- 
stellations to the celestial pole, and the recession of others 
The bright star of the Lesser Bear, which we call the pole 
star^ has not always been, nor will always continue to be, 
our polar star. At the time of the construction of the ear- 
liest catalogues, this star was 12*^ from the pole ; it is now 
only 1° 34' from it, and it will approach to within half a 
degree of it ; after which it will again recede, and slowly 
give place to others, which will succeed it in its proximity 
to the pole. 

The pole, as above considered, is to be understood, merely, as the van- 
ishing point oi tlie Earth's axis ; or that point in the concave sphere which 
is always opposite the terrestrial pole, and which consequently must move 
as that moves. 

The precession of the stars in respect to the equinoxes, 
is less apparent the greater their distance from the ecliptic ; 
for whereas a star in the zodiac will appear to sweep the 
whole circumference of the heavens, in an equinoctial year, 
a star situated within the polar circle will describe only a 
very small circle in that period, and by so much the less, 
as it approaches the pole. The north pole of the earth 
being elevated 23° 27-^' towards the tropic of Cancer, the 
circumpolar stars will be successively, at the least distance 
from it, when their longitude is 3 signs, or 90°. The posi 



Admitting this explanation, in what does the precession of the equinoxes really consisll 
To what point in the heavens will the pole of the Earth be directed, during: the revolution ' 
How must this affect the diurnal motion and aspect of the heavens, in remote ages'* 
Wherein will the effects of such a motion be particularly visible? Give an instance. 
VVhf,n 1J011 speak of the pole as in motion, what is to be understood by that term ? Ic 
the fjrecpssion of the stars, with respect to the equinoxes, equally apparent in eveo' part 
of 'he heavens ? At what lontjilude do the circumpolar stars approach nearest the ooUs' 



PRECESSION OF THE EaUINOXES, &C. £61 

Mon of the north polar star in 1S36, will be in the 17° of Tav,- 
riis ; when it arrives at the first degree of Cancer, which it 
will do in about 250 years, it will be at its nearest possible 
approach to the pole — namely, 29' 55'. About 2900 years 
before the commencement of the Christian era, Alpha Dra- 
conis^ the third star in the Dragon's tail, was in the first de- 
gree of Cancer, and only 10' from the pole ; consequently 
it Avas then the j3oZe star. After the lapse of 11,600 years, 
the star Lyra, the brighest in the northern hemisphere, will 
occupy the position of a pole star, being then about 5° from 
the pole ; whereas now its north polar distance is upwards 
of 51°. 

The mean average precession from the creation (4001 B. C.) to the year 
1300, is 49".51455 ; consequently the equinoctial points have receded since 
the creation, 2 s. 14° 8' 27". The longitude of the star Beta Arietis, was, in 
1S20,31°27'28" : Melon, a famous mathematician of Athens, who flourished 
430 years before Christ, says this star, in his time, was in the vernal equinox. 
Ii he is corri-ct, then 31° '27' 28", divided by 2250 years, tha elapsed time, 
will give 50^" for the precession, Something, however, must be allowed 
for the imperfection of the instruments used at that day, and even until the 
sixteenth century. 

Since all the stars complete half a revolution about the 
axis of the ecliptic in about 12.500 years, if the North Star 
be at its nearest approach to the pole 250 years hence, it 
■will, 12.500 years afterwards, be at its greatest possible 
distance from it, or about 47° above it : — That is, the star 
itself wdll remain immoveable in its present position, but the 
pole of the Earth will then point as much below the pole of 
the ecliptic, as now it points above. This will have the 
efiect, apparently, of elevating the present polar star to twice 
its present altitude, or 47°. Wherefore, at the expiration 
of half the equinoctial year, that point in the heavens which 
is now 1° IS' north of the zenith of Hartford, will be the 
place of the north pole, and all those places which are situa- 
ted 1° 18' north of Hartford, will then have the present pole 
of the heavens in their zenith. 

OBLiaUlTY OF THE ECLIPTIC. 

The distance between the equinoctial and either tropic, 
measured on the meridian, is called the Obliquity of the 
Ecliptic : or, this obliquity may be defined as the angle form- 

What is the position, at present, of the north polar star, and when will it make ita 
nearest possible approach to the true pole of the heavens 7 At what period has any other 
itar been the polar star? When will the star Lyra, which is more than 50° from it, be 
the north polar star? What laas the mean annual precession from the crea-ion to the 
year 1300, and how much did it amount to in that period ? When inas Beta Arieiis 
in the equinox, aad what is its lonsitude noio 7 When will our present north star be 
at its leaist, and when at its greatest distance from the pole ? In this case, is it meant that 
the star itself will move, or the pole? In what manner? What, then, must be the ap- 
parent effect? lUustrate thcso phenomena by a diagram. What is the obliquity (A 
tiie ecliptic ? 

23* 



«?70 OBLiaUlTY OF THE ECLIPTIC. 

e4 by the intersection of the celestial equator with the eclip- 
tic. Hitherto, we have considered these great primary 
circles in the heavens, as never varying their position in 
space, nor with respect to each other. But it is a remarkable 
and well ascertained fact, that both are in a state of constant 
change. We have seen that the plane of the Earth's equator 
is constantly drawn out of place by the unequal attraction 
of the Sun and Moon acting in diiferent directions upon the 
unequal masses of matter at the equator and the poles ; 
whereby the intersection of the equator with the ecliptic is 
constantly retrograding — thus producing the precession of 
the equinoxes. 

The displacement of the ecliptic^ on the contrary, is pro 
duced chiefly by the action of the planets, particularly of 
Jupiter and Venus, on the Earth ; by virtue of which the 
plane of the Earth's orbit is drawn nearer to those of these 
two planets, and consequently, nearer to the plane of the 
equinoctial. The tendency of this attraction of the planets, 
therefore, is to diminish the angle which the plane of the 
equator makes with that of the ecliptic, bringing the two 
planes nearer together ; and if the Earth had no motion of 
rotation, it v/ould, in time, cause the two planes to coincide. 
But in consequence of the rotary motion of the Earth, the 
inclination of these planes t'o each other remains very nearly 
the same; its annual dimmution being scarcely more than 
three fourths of one second of a degree in a year. 

The obliquity of the ecliptic, at the commencement of the present .ientury, 
was, according to Baily, 23° 27' 56J", subje'^t to a yearly diminution of 
0".4755. According to Bessel, it was 23° 27" 54".3"2, with an annual dimi- 
nution of 0".46. This diminution, however, is subject to a slight semiik.'- 
nual variation, from the same causes which produce the displacement of 
the plane of the ecliptic, in precession. 

The attraction of the Sun and Moon, also, unites w'lu ihat 
of the planets, at certain seasons, to augment the diminution 
of the obliquity, and at other times, to lessen it. On this 
account the obliquity itself is subject to a periodical varia- 
tion ; for the attractive power of the Moon, which tends to 
produce a change in the obliquity of the ecliptic, is variable, 
while the diurnal motion of the Earth, which tends to pre- 
vent the change from taking place, is constant. Hence 
the Earth, which is so nicely poised on her centre, bows a 

In what light have we hitherto considered the great circles of the heavens ? But what 
is the fact? By what cause is the displacement of the equinoctial, or the plane of the 
Earth's equator, effected ? How is the displacement of the plane of the ecliptic crtected ? 
If the planetary attraction tends constantly to draw the planes of the equinoctial and 
ecliptic nearer together, what is to prevent them from coincidine in one and the same 
plane? How much is the distance or angle between them diminished every year? What 
was the obUquity of the ecliptic, or the quantity of this angle, at the commence7neni 
of the present century? Is the annual diminution of the obliquity subject to any 
variation 7 From what cause 7 What effect has the attraction of the Sun and JMoot 
on this obliQUitv ? 



OBLianiTY OF THE ECLIPTIC. 271 

hide to the nfluence of the Moon, and rises again, alternate- 
ly, like the gentle oscillations of a balance. This curious 
phenomenon, is called Nutation. 

In consequence of the yearly diminution of the obliquity 
of the ecliptic, the tropics are slowly and steadily approach- 
ing the equinoctial, at the rate of little more than three 
fourths of a second every year ; so that the Sun does not 
now come so far north of the equator in summer, nor de- 
cline so far south in winter, by nearly a degree, as it must 
have done at the creation. 

The most obvious effect of this diminution of the obliqui- 
ty of the ecliptic, is to equalize the length of our days and 
nights ; but it has an effect also to cnange the position of 
the stars near the tropics. Those which were formerly 
situated north of the ecliptic, near the summer solstice, are 
now found to be still farther north, and farther from the 
plane of the ecliptic. On the contrary, those which, accord 
iog to the testimony of the ancient astronomers, were situ- 
ated south of the ecliptic, near the summer solstice, have ap- 
proached this plane, insomuch that some are now either 
situated within it, or just on the north side of it. Similar 
changes have taken place with respect to those stars situ- 
ated near the winter solstice. All the stars, indeed, parti- 
cipate more or less in this motion, but less^ in proportion to 
their proximity to the equinoctial. 

It is important, however, to observe, that this diminution 
will not always continue. A time will arrive when this 
motion, growing less and less, will at length entirely cease, 
and the obliquity will, apparently, remain constant for a 
time; after which it will gradually increase again, and con- 
tinue to diverge by the same yearly increment as it before 
had diminished. This alternate decrease and increase will 
constitute an endless oscillation, comprehended between cer- 
tain fixed limits. Theory has not yet enabled us to deter- 
mine precisely what these limits are, but it may be demon- 
strated from the constitution of our globe, that such limits 
exist, and that they are very restricted, probably not exceed- 
ing 2'^ 42'. If we consider the effect of this ever varying 
attribute in the system of the universe, it may be affirmed 



What results from this alternate and opposite influence? By what token does ihe 
Earth show her respect to ihis influence of the Moon ? What is this phenomenon called 1 
What is the consequence of the yearly diminution of the obliquity of the ecliptic in respect 
to the position of the tropics, and the declination of the Sun ? What other obvious elfecta 
result from this diminution ? How does it affect the declination of the stars near the 
solstices? Do aU the stars partake, more or less, in this motion ? Will this diminution 
of the obUqiiity always continue? What are the limits of its alternate variation? What 
would be the consequence, in respect to the seasons, should the plane of the eclirtic evel 
eoineide with the planp of tlie equator ? 



J872 THE TIDES. 

that the plane of the ecliptic never has coincvded with the 
plane of the equator, and never will coincide wiih it. Such 
a coincidence, could it happen, would produce upon the 
Earth perpetual spring. 

The method used by astronomers to determine the obli- 
quity of the ecliptic is, to take half the difference of the 
greatest and least meridian altitudes of the Sun. 

The following table exhibits the mean obliquity of the 
ecliptic for every ten years during the present century. 



1800 


23° 27' 51'' 


.78 


1860 


23° 27' 27'' 


.36 


1810 


23 27 50 


.21 


1780 


23 27 22 


.79 


1820 


23 27 45 


.64 


1880 


23 27 18 


.22 


1830 


23 27 41 


.07 


1890 


23 27 13 


.65 


1840 


23 27 36 


.50 


1900 


23 27 9 


.08 


1850 


23 27 31 


.93 


1910 


23 27 4 


.52 



CHAPTER XXII. 



THE TIDES. 

The oceans, and all the seas, are observed to be incessant- 
ly agitated for certain periods of time, first from the east 
towards the west, and then again from the west towards the 
east. In this motion, which lasts about six hours, the sea 
gradually swells ; so that entering the mouths of rivers, it 
drives back the waters towards their source. After a con- 
tinual flow of six hours, the seas seem to rest for about a 
quarter of an hour ; they then begin to ebb, or retire back 
again from west to east for six hours more; and the rivers 
again resume their natural courses. Then after a seem- 
ing pause of a quarter of an hour, the seas again begin to 
flow, as before, and thus alternately. This regular alternate 
motion of the sea constitutes the tides, of which there are 
two in something less than twenty-five hours. 

The ancients considered the ebbing and flowing of the lides as one of the 
greatest mysteries in nature, and were utterly at a loss tc account for them. 
Galileo and Descartes, and particularly Kepler, made some successful 
advances towards ascertaining the cause ; but Sir Isaac Newton was the 
first who clearly showed what were the chief agents in producing these 
motions. 

The cause of the tides, is the attraction of the Sun and 
Moon, but chiefly of the Moon, upon the waters of the 

What is the method used by astronomers for determining the obliquity of the ecliptic T 
What regular motion is observed in the great body of waters upon the globe f In wh»t 
periods of time is this alternate ebbing and flowing accomplished? What is it called} 
Hotv were these phenomena regarded by the ancients ? Who ascertained their iru 
eatue ? What ia the cause of the tides 1 



THE TIDES. 



273 



oc^an. In virtue of grav^itation, the Moon, by her attrac- 
tion, draws, or raises the water towards her; but because 
the power of attraction diminishes as the squares of the dis- 
tance increase, the waters on the opposite side of the Earth, 
are not so much attracted as they are on the side nearest 
the Moon. 

That the Mooiij says Sir John Herschel, should, by her attraction, heap 
up the waters of the ocean under her, seems to most persons very natural; 
but that the same cause should, at the same time, heap them up on the oppo- 
site side, seems, to many, palpably absurd. Yet nothing is more true, nor 
indeed more evident, wlien we consider that it is not by her ichole attraction, 
but by the differences of her atn-actions at the opposite surfaces and at the 
centre, that the waters are raised. 

That the tides are dependent upon some known and determinate laws, is 
evident from the exact time of hjgh water being previously given in every 
aphemeris, and in many of the common almanacks. 

The iMoon comes every day later to the meridian than on the day preceding, 
and her exact time is known by calculation ; and the tides in any and 
every place, will be found to follow the same rule ; happening exactly <o 
much later every day as the Moon comgs later to the meridian. From triis 
exact conformity to the motions of the Moon, we are induced to look to fier 
as the cause ; and to infer that these phenomena are occasioned principally 
by the Moon's attraction. 



Fig. S^. 



THE TIDES. 
Fig. 25. 



Fig. 26. 






If the Earth were at rest, and there were no attractive in- 
fluence from either the Sua or Moon, it is obvious from the 
principles of gravitation, that the waters in the ocean would 
be truly spherical ; (as represented by Fig. 24 ;) but daily 
observation proves that they are in a state of continual agi- 
tation. 

If the Earth and Moon were without motion, and the Earth 
covered all over with water, the attraction of the Moon would 
raise it u} in a heap, in that part of the ocean to which the 
Moon is vertical, as in Figure 25, and there it would, prob- 



How does the attraction of the Sun and JMoon produce tides upon both sides of the 
earth at the same tunef What is Sir John, Herschel' s remark upon this theory? 
Hoic is it Jcnoion tJiat the tides are governed hy any asccrtxined law ? What coinci- 
dence is observed be'weer), the meridian passage of the Moon, and the time of high 
tcater? What conchision may tee derive from th's coincidence? If the Earth were 
at rest, and under no influence from the attraction of the Sun or Moon, wliat shape would 
the waters assume? Suppose the attractive power of the ISIoon upon the Earth to i)e as 
it L?, and leither the Earth or Aloon to have any motion, what would be die result? How 
would tills condition of tilings be affected by the Earth's rotation^ 



274 THE TIDES. 

ably, always coniinue ; but by the rotation of the Earth 
upoa its axis, each part of its surface to which the Moon is 
vertical is presented to the action of the Moon : wherefore, 
as the quantity of water on the whole Earth remains tiie 
same, when the waters are elevated on the side of the Earth 
under the Moon, and on the opposite side also, it is evident 
they must recede from the intermediate points, and thus the 
attraction of the Moon produce high, water at two opposite 
places, and low water at two opposite places, on the Earth, 
at the same time, as represented by Figure 26. 

This is eviflent from the figure. The waters cannot rise in one place, 
without falling in another ; and therefore they must fall a3 low in the lioiizoii. 
at C and D, as they rise in the zenith and nadir, at A and B. Fig. 27. 

THE TIDES. 

Fig. 27. 



aH 



%** 




It has already been shown, under the article gravitation 
that the Earth and Moon would fall towards each other, by 
the power of their mutual attraction, if there were no centri- 
fugal force to prevent them ; and that the Moon would fall 
as much faster towards the Earth than the Earth Avould fall 
towards the Moon, as the quantity of matter in the Earth is 
greater than the quantity of matter in the Moon. The same 
law deiermiries also the size of their respective orbits around 
their common centre of gravity. 

If follows then, as we have seen, that the Moon does nof revolve, strict- 
ly speaking, around the Earth as a centre, but around a point between them, 
which is 80 times nearer the Earth than the Moon, and consequently is situ- 
ated alx>ut 3000 miles from the Earth's centre. It has also been shown, that 
all bodies moving in circles acquire a centrifugal force proportioned to their 
respective masses and velocity. From these facts, some philosophers account 

If the Earth and the Moon mutually attract each other with so much force, what pre 
vents their coming together? But centrifugal force results only from circular motion, 
does the Earth then circulate around the Moon to acquire the cenirifu^ral force by which 
it is kept from falling upon the Moon? \An8. The Earth doea not circulate around the 
Moon, but around the common centre of gravity between it and the Moon. J Where is thia 
centre situated, and in what time does the Earth revolve about it? [Ans. The centre ol 
gravity, betweeri the Earth and Moon, is alx)ut 3000 miles from the Earth's centre, around 
which it revolves everj- lunar month, or as otlen as the Moon revolves around the Earth.l 
From the fact of the Earth's rnolion, as in the case described, how do some jphiloat' 
phers account for high water on the side of the Earth, opposite to the Moon J 



THE TIDES. 275 

fcsr liigti water on the side of the Earth opposite to the Moon, in the following 
manner : 

As the Earth and Moon move around their common centre of gravity, ikat 
part of the Earth which is at any time turned from the Moon, being about 
7000 miles farther from the centre of gravity, than the side next the Moon, 
would have a greater centrifugal force than the side next her. At the Earth's 
centre, the centrifugal force will balance the attractive force ; therefore as 
much water is thrown of by the centrifugal force on the side which is turned 
from the Moon, as is raised on the side next her by her attraction. 

From the universal law, that the force of gravity dimin- 
ishes as the square of the distance increases, it results, that 
the attractive power of the Moon decreases in intensity at 
every step of the descent from the zenith to the nadir; and 
consequently that the waters on the zenith, being more at- 
tracted by the Moon than the Earth is at its centre, move 
faster towards the Moon than the Earth's centre does: And 
jis the centre of the Earth moves faster towards the Moon 
than the waters about the nadir do, the waters will be, as it 
were, left behind, and thus, with respect to the centre, they 
will be raised. 

The reason why the Earth and waters of our globe do not seem to be af- 
fected equally hy X\\e Moon's attraction, is, that the earthy substance of the 
g'obe, be'ing firmly united, does not yield to any difference of the Moon's at- 
tractive forces insomuch that its upper and lower surface must move equally 
fast towards the Moon ; whereas the waters, cohering together but very light- 
iy, yield to the diifeient degrees of the Moon's attractive force, at different 
distances from her. 

The length of a lunar day, that is, of the interval from 
one meridian passage of the Moon to another, being, at a 
mean rate, 24 hours, 48 minutes and 44 seconds, the inter- 
val between the flux and the reflux of the sea is not, at a 
mean rate, precisely six hours, but twelve minutes and 
eleven seconds more, so that the time of high water does 
not happen at the same hour, but is about 49 minutes later 
every day. 

The Earth revolves on its axis in about twenty-four hours ; 
if the Moon, therefore, were stationary, the same part of our 
globe would return beneath it, and there would be two tides 
every twenty -four hours ; but while the Earth is turning once 
upon its axis, the Moon has gone forward 13° in her orbit — 
which takes forty-nine minutes more before the same meri- 
dian is brought again directly under the Moon. And hence 
every succeeding day the time of high water will be forty- 
nine minutes later than the preceding. 

For example : — Suppose at any place it be high water at 3 o'clock in tl»€ 
afternoon, upon the day of new Moon; the following day it will be high watei 
about 49 minutes after 3 ; the day after, about 38 minutes after 4; and so on 



How is this phenomenon othenvise explained, by the laws of gravity, merely? Are tht 
Earth and waters of the globe affected equally, by the Moon's attraction 7 Why not i 
What is the average interval between the flux and reflux of the sea? What is the length 
of a lunar day, and of the interval of the flux and reflux of the sea^ '^ow Ls this daily 
etardition of the tides accounted for ? Give an example 7 



276 THE TIDES* 

till the next new Moon. The exact daily mean retardation of the tides is thXM 

determined: 
The mean motion of the Moon, in a solar day, is 13°. 17639639 
The mean motion of the Sun, in a solar day, in .98564722 

Now, as 1.5° is to 60 minutes, so is 120.19074917 to 48' 44". 

It is obvious that the attraction of the Sun must product 
upon the waters of the ocean a like effect to that of the 
Moon, though in a less degree ; for the great mass of the 
Sun is more than compensated by its immense distance 
Nevertheless, its effect is considerable, and it can be shown, 
that the height of the solar tide is to the height of the lunai 
tide as 2 to 5. Hence the tides, though constant, are noi 
equal. They are greatest when the Moon is in conjunction 
with, or in opposition to, the Sun, and least when in quad 
rature. For in the former case, the Sun and Moon set to- 
gether, and the tide will equal the sum of the solar and lunai 
tides, and in the latter they act against each other, and the 
tide will be the difference. 

The former are called Spring Tides; the latter, Neaf 
Tides. The spring tides are highest, when the Sun and 
Moon are near the equatr>-, ;:»iid the Moon at her least distance 
from the Eart^ Tne neap tides are lowest, when the Mcor 
in be: Tirst and second quarters is at her greatest distance 
from the Earth. The general theory of the tides is this: 
When the Moon is nearest the Earth, her attraction is str^^ng- 
est, and the tides are the highest ; wheii she is fartnesl 
from the Earth, her .attraction is least, and the tides are th« 
lowest. 

From the above theory, it might be supposed that the tides 
would be the highest when the Moon was on the meridian. 
But it is found that in open seas, where the water flows 
freely, the Moon has generally passed the north or south 
meridian about three honrs. when it is high water. The 
reason is, that the force by which the Moon raises the tide 
continues to act., and consequently the waters continue to 
rise, after she has passed the meridian. 

For the same reasoB, the highest tides, which are pro- 
duced by the conjunction and opposition of the Sun and 
Moon, do not happen on Mie days of the fuH and change ; 
neither do the lowest tides happen on the days of their 
quadratures. — But the greatest spring tides commonly hap- 



Are the tides uniformly high ? When, and on what account do they differ? What are 
these extreme tides called? When are the sprin? tides highest? When are the neap 
tides lowest? What is the general theory upon this subject? Does it necessarily r<'8Ult 
from this theory, that the tide is highest when the Moon is on the meridian ? What reiiBOR 
is assigned for this ? What similar fact is accounted for upon the same principle I 



THE TIEKS. 277 

pen 1.^ days after the new and full Moons ; J^nd the .east 
neap tides 1^ days after the first and third quarters. 

The Sun and Moon, by reason of the elliptical form of their orbits, are al 
ternately nearer to and farther from the Earth, than their mean distances. 
In consequence of this, the efficacy of the Sun will fluctuate between the ex- 
tremes 19 and 21. taking 20 for its mean value, and ttetween 43 and 59 foi 
tha* of the Moon. Taking into account this cause of difference, the highest 
spring tide will be to the lowest neap as 59-f-2i is to 43—19, or as 60 to 24 
or 10 to 3. The relative mean influence is as 51 to 20, or as 5 to 2, nearly.— ^ 
Nersckel's Astr. p. 339. 

Though the tides, in open seas^ are at the highest about 
three hours after the Moon has passed the meridian, yet the 
waters in their passage through shoals and channels, and by 
striking against capes and headlands, are so retarded that, 
to different places, the tides happen at all distances of the 
Moon from the meridian ; consequently at all hours of the 
lunar day< 

In small collections of water, the Moon acts at the same 
time on every part ; diminishing the gravity of the whole 
mass. On this account. there are no sensible tides in lakes, 
they being generally so small that when the Moon is verti- 
cal, it attracts every part alike; and by rendering all the 
waters equally light, no part of them can be raised higher 
than another. The Mediterranean and Baltic Seas have 
very small elevations, partly for this reason, and partly be- 
cause the inlets by which they communicate with the ocean 
are so narrow, that they cannot, in so short a time, either 
receive or discharge enough, sensibly to raise or sink their 
surfaces. 

Of all the causes of difference in the height of tides at 
different places, by far the greatest is local situation. In 
wide-mouthed rivers, opening in the direction of the stream 
of the tides, and whose channels are growing gradually 
narrower, the water is accumulated by the contracting 
banks, until in some instances it rises to the height of 20, 
30, and even 50 feet. 

Air being lighter than water, and the surface of the at- 
mosphere being nearer to the Moon than the surface of the 
sea, it cannot be doubted but that the Moon raises much 
higher tides in the atmosphere than in the sea. According 
to Sir John Herschel these tides are, by very delicate ob- 
servations, rendered not only sensible, hut measurable. 
Upon the supposition that the waters on the surface of the Moon are oi 

WMt is the crmvarative force of the solar and lunar attraction upon the Earth ? 
To what is owing the great difference in the time of high water at places lying under the 
same meridian? ^^^ly are there no tides upon lakes, and small collections of water? 
To svhat cause', more tnan to all others, is the different height of tides owing? Explain 
tliis. Is it probable that the Moon exerts any influence of attraction on the atmosphere ? 
vVhy is it probable? Are the atmospheric ddes sufliciently sensible to be appreniattui 

24 



278 THE SEASONS. 

the same specific gravity as our own, we niiglit easily determine the heiubt 
to which tlie Earth would raise a lunar tide, by the known principl", that the 
Rttraciion of one of these bodies on the other's surface is directly as its 
quantity of matter, and inversely as its diameter. By making the calculation^ 
(ve shall find the attractive power of the Earth upon the Moon to be 2J.77/ 
times greater than that of the Moon upon the Earth. 



CHAPTER X:?CIII. 

THE SEASONS — DIFFERENT LENGTHS OF THE DAYS AND NIGH7S. 

The vicissitudes of the seasons and the unequal lengths 
of the days and nights, are occasioned by the annual revo- 
lution of the Earth around the Sun, with its axis inclined to 
the plane of its orbit. 

The temperature of any part of the Earth's surface depends 
mainly, if not entirely, upon \h exposure to the Sun's rays. 
Whenever the Sun is above the horizon of any place, that 
place is receiving heat; when the Sun is below the horizon 
it is parting with it, by a process which is called radiation. 
The quantities of heat thus received and imparted in the 
course of the year, must balance each other at every place, 
or the equilibrium of temperature would not be supported. 

Whenever, then, the Sun remains more than twelve hours 
above the horizon of any place, and less beneath, the gen- 
eral temperature of that place will be aboce the mean state; 
when the reverse takes place, the temperature, for the same 
reason, will be below the mean state. Now the continuance 
of the Sun above the horizon of any place, depends entirely 
upon his declination, or altitude at noon. Abouit the 20ih 
of March, when the Sun is in the vernal equinox, and con- 
sequently has no declination, he rises at six in the morning 
and sets at six in the evening; the day and night are then 
equal, and as the Sun continues as long above our horizon 
as below it, his influence must be nearly the same at the 
same latitudes, in both hemispheres. 

From the 20tb of March to the 21st of June, the days 
grow longer, and the nights shorter, in the northern hemis- 
phere the temperature increases, and we pass from spring 
to mid-summer ; while the reverse of this takes place in the 

Hmo much greater is the afractive jxncerofthe Forth upon the Moon, than that qf 
the Moon v.pon the Earthl What occas^ion- tt e v ci^sitli<le^i of rhi tea tins and lie 
unequal lengths uf the days ard niphts ? Upi n what dops the temp* ratu^f a diftnr- 
ent pirre- deiend? Under w at cimim fai ces do ih»' 8:'inf places (h'mge their 
Urinperature? Are the (lUHntitiesof heat r ceivei) and impariefl, ev ry year njwaya 
enual at the game places ? Why is it so i When is the tempera urc of a plu'-e ahovt, 
am) when is it helonr> its trean state? Upon vhat does the continuance of the Sin 
aliove 'ht honzcni of any place, depend? When is the Sun as long above our hori- 
son aj. below it? During what seaaon of the ye^r is the temperature increasing? 



THE SEASONS. 279 

%oumern hemisphere. From the 21st of June to the 23d of 
September, the days and nights again approach to equality, 
and the excess of temperature in the northern hemisphere 
above the mean state, grows less, as also its defect in the 
southern; so that, when the Sun arrives at the autumnal 
equinox, the mean temperature is again restored. From 
the 23d of September until the 21st of December, om- nights 
grow longer and the days shorter, and the cold increases as 
before it diminished, while we pass from autumn to mid- 
winter, in the northern hemisphere, and the inhabitants of 
the southern hemisphere from spring to mid-summer. From 
the 21st of December to the 20th of March, the cold relaxes 
as the days grow longer, and we pass from the dreariness of 
winter to the mildness of spring, when the seasons are com- 
pleted, and the mean temperature is again restored. The 
same vicissitudes transpire, at the same time, in the southern 
hemisphere, but in a contrary order. — Thus are produced 
the four seasons of the year. 

But I have stated not the only, nor, perhaps, the most 
efficient cause in producing the heat of summer and the cold 
of winter. If, to the inhabitants of the equator, the Sun 
were to remain 16 hours below their horizon, and only 8 
hours above it, for every day of the year, it is certain they 
would never experience the rigours of our winter; since it 
can be demonstrated, that as much heat falls upon the same 
area from a vertical Sun in 8 hours, as would fall from hiru 
at an angle of 60°, in 16 hours. 

Now as the Sun's rays fall most obliquely when the days 
are shortest, and viost directly when the days are longest, 
these two causes, namely, th^. duration and intensity of 
the solar heat, together, produce the temperature of the dif- 
ferent seasons. The reason why we have not the hottest 
temperature when the days are longest, and the cold- 
est temperature when the days are shortest, but in each 
case about a month afterwards, appears to be, that a body 
once heated, does not grow cold instantaneously, but grad- 
ually, and so of the contrary. Hence, as long as more heat 
comes from the Sun by day than is lost by nght, the heat 
will increase, and vice versa. 



What, at the same time, talces place in regard to the temperature, in the southern 
hemiispiiere ? During what portion of the year is the temperature decreasing? For what 
reason? During wiiat portion of the year is the cold increasmg? Why is it so? What ' 
change of seasons, tJien, takes place, in tlie northern and southern hemisphere? What 
other chaiiires complete the seasons of the year? Whence is it evident that the unequal 
lengths of the days and nights are not she only, nor perhaps the most efficient cause of the 
heat of summer, and the coid of winter? What two causes produce the greatest 
vicissitudes of heat and cold ? Why, then, do we not have the hottest weather when 
the davs are longest, and the c<.inirary ? 



280 THE SEASONS. 

BEGINNING AND LENGTH OF THE SEASONS. 

h. m. S. 
San enters V5 ( W inter begins) 1833, Dec. 21st, 7 25 46 M. T. Wash. 

" " 'Y' (Spring " ) 1834, March 20,8 56 38 " »^ 
" " 53 (Summer" ) " June21st,6 3 9" " 
" " =C^ (Autumn " ) " Sept 22d, 19 58 21 " 
.. " V5 (Winter " ) " Dec. 21, 13 2157 " " 

d. h. m. s. 

Bun in the Winter Signs . , . . 89 1 30 52 

" " Spring . . . . 92 21 6 31 

" " Summer . . . . 93 13 55 22 

" " Autumn 89 17 23 26 

" north of Equator (Spring and Summer) 1S6 11 1 53 
"south " (Winter and Autumn) 173 18 54 18 

Longest north of the equator, . . 7 16 7 35 

Length of the tropical year, beginning at 

the winter solstice 1833, and ending at 

the winter solstice 1834, 
Mean or average length of the tropical year, 365 5 i8 4 

The north pole of the Earth is denominatecJ the elevated 
pole, because it is always about 23^^ above a perpendicular 
to the plane of the equator, and the south pole is denomina- 
ted the depressed pole, because it is about the same distance 
below such perpendicular. 

As the Sun cannot shine on more than one half the Earth's 
surface at a time, it is plain, that when the Earth is moving 
through that portion ofits orbit which lies above the Sun, the 
elevated pole is in the dark. This requires six months, that 
is, until the Earth arrives at the equinox, when the elevated 
pole emerges into the light, and the depressed pole is turned 
away from the Sun for the same period. Consequently, 
there are six months day and six months night, alternately, 
at the poles. 

When the Sun appears to us to be in one part of the eclip- 
tic, the Earth, as seen from the Sun, appears in the point di- 
ametrically opposite. Thus, when the Sun appears in the 
vernal equinox at the first point of Aries, the Earth is actu- 
ally in the opposite equinox at Libra. The days and nights 
are then equal all over the world. 

As the Sun appears to move up from the vernal equinox 

the summer solstice, the Earth actually moves from the 
lutumnal equinox down to the winter solstice. The days 
iow lengthen in the northern hemisphere, and shorten in the 
'outhern. The Sun is now over the north pole, where it is 
aid-day, and opposite the south pole, where it is mid-night. 

Why is the north pole denominated the elevated pole? Why is the south pole denomi- 
eted the depressed pole ? Why are there six months day and six month niplit, alternately 

1 the poles ? What is always the relative ()osition of the Sun arid Earth in the ecliptic 
\i\e an example. When do the days lengthen in the northern heinispherc, and shortwi la 
He aorthera ? When is it mid-da y at the north pule, and rnid-ni;;ht at d)e Eouthi 



THE SEASONS. 281 

As the Sun descends from the summer solstice tov^^ards 
the autumnal equmox, the Earth ascends from the winter 
solstice towards the vernal equinox. The summer days in 
the northern hemisphere having waxed shorter and shorter, 
now become again of equal length in both hemispheres. 

While the Sun appears to move from the autumnal equi- 
nox down to the winter solstice, the Earth passes up from 
the vernal equinox to the summer solstice ; the south pole 
comes into the light, the winter days continually shorten in 
the northern hemisphere, and the summer days as regularly 
increase in length in the southern hemisphere. 

While the Sun appears again to ascend from its winter 
solstice to the vernal equinox, the Earth descends from the 
summer solstice to the autumnal equinox. The summer 
days now shorten in the southern hemisphere, and the win- 
ter days lengthen in the northern hemisphere. 

When the Sun passes the vernal equinox, it rises to the 
arctic or elevated pole, and sets to the antarctic pole. When 
the Sun arrives at the summer solstice, it is noon at the 
north pole, and midnight at the south pole. When the Sun 
passes the autumnal equinox, it sets to the north pole, and 
rises to the south pole. When the Sun arrives at the win- 
ter solstice, it is midnight at the north pole, and noon at the 
south pole ; and when the Sun comes again to the vernal 
equinox, it closes the day at the south pole, and lights up 
the morning at the north pole. 

There would, therefore, be 1S6-J days during which the 
Snn would not set at the north pole, and an equal time du- 
ring which he would not rise at the south pole; and 178^ 
days in which he would not set at the south pole, nor rise 
at the north pole. 

At the arctic circle, 23° 27+' from the pole, the longest 
day is 24 hours, and 2:oes on increasing as vou approach the 
pole. In latitude 67^ IS' it is 30 davs; in'lat. Q9° 30' it is 
60 days, &c. (See Table XII.) The same takes place be- 
tw^een the antarctic circle and the south pole, w4th the ex- 
ception, that the day in the same latitude south is a little 
shorter, since the Sun is not so long south of the equator, 
as at the north of it. In this estimate no account is taken 
of the refraction of the atmosphere, which, as we shall 

"When do the summer days in the northern hemisphere grow shorter and shorter? When 
do they become of equal length in both hemispheres? When do the winter days shorten 
in the northern hemisphere, and the summer days lengthen in the southern? Wnen do 
the summer days shorten in the southern hemisphere, and the winter days lengthen in the 
Hprthern? When does the sun rise to the north pole, and set to the soutii? When is it 
noon at the north pole, and mid-night at the south pole ? When does the Sun set at the 
north pole, and rise to the souih? When is it mid-night at the north pole, and noon at the 
south ? \\ hat is the length of the day at the north pole ? What at tiie south pole 7 Ai 
the arctic circle ? Between the antarctic circle and the pole ^ 

24* 



i'%2 THE SEASONS. 

See hereafiei, increases the length of the day, by making 
the Sun appear more elevated above the horizon than it real- 
ly is. 



THE SEASONS — UNEQUAL LENGTHS OF DAYS AND NIGHTS. 

Fig. 28. 




The above cut represents the inclination of the Earth's axis to its orbit In 
every one of the fvvplve siuns of the echpiic, and consequently for each 
month in the year. Tiie Sun enters tlie sign Aries, or the vefnal equinox, on 
the 20lh of Marcl\, when the Earth's axis inclines neirher totcards the Sun, nor 
from it. but sideways to it; so that the r^un then .-^hines equally upon the 
Earth from pole to pole, and the days and nights arc every where equal. 
This is the beginning of the astronomical year ; it is also the beginning of 
day at the north pole, which is just coming into light, aod the end of day at 
the south pole, which is just going into darkness. 

By the Earth's orbiiual progress, the Sun appears to enter the second sign, 
Taurus, on the 20th of April, when the north pole, N. has sensibly advanced 
into the light, while the south pole, S, has been declining from it; whereby 
the days become longer than the nights in the Northern Hemisphere, and 
shorter in the SoiiMi^rn. « 

On the 21st of ^iay, the Sun appears to enter the sign Gemini, when the 
north pole, N, has advanced considerably furfiier inio the light, while the 
south pole. S, has proportionally declined from it ; the summer days are now 
waxing longer in the Northern Hemisphere, and the nights shorter. 

The 21st of June, when the Sun enters the sign Cancer, is the first day of 
gummcr, in the astronomical year, and the longest day in the Northern Hemis- 
phere. The north pole now has its greatest inclination to the Sun, the 
light of which, as is shown by the boundary of light and darkness, in the 
figure, extends to the utmost verge of the Arctic Circle ; the whole of which 
is included in the enlightened hemisphere of the Earth, and enjoys, at this 
season, constant day during the complete revolution of the Earth on its axis. 
The whole of the Northern Frigid Zone is now in the circle of perpetual illu- 
mination. 

On the 23d of .July, the Sim enters the sign Leo, and as the line of the 
Earth's axis always continues parallel to itself, the boundary of light and 
darkness begins to approach nearer *o the poles, and the length of the day. 



HARVEST MOON. 283 

in the Noithem Ilemisyjhare, which had arrived at its maximum, oegins 
gradually to decrease. On the 23d of August, the Sun enters the sign Virgo, 
iucrGiising the appearances mentioned in Leo. 

On the 23dof September, the Sun enters Libra, the first of the autumnal 
^iiins. when the Earth's axis, having the same inclination as it had in the op- 
po'site sign, Aries, is turned neither /ro/n the Sua, nor towards \\., but oblique 
ly to it, so tliat the Sun again now shines equally upon the whole of the Earth's, 
s'urface from pole to pole. The days and nights are once more of equal 
length throughout the world. 

On the 23d of October, the Sun enters the sign Scorpio; the days visibly 
decrease in length in the Northern Hetuisphere, and increase in tiie South- 
ern. 

On the 22d of November, the Sun enters the sign Sagittarius, the last of 
the autumnal signs, at which time the boundary of light and darkness is at 
a considerable distance from the north pole, while the south pole has pro- 
portionally advanced into the light ; the length of the day continues to increase 
in the Southern Hemisphere, and to decrease in the Northern. • 

On the 21st of December, which is the period of the winter solstice, the 
Sun enters the sign Capricorn. At this time, the north pole of the Earth's 
axis is turned from the Sun. into perpetual darkness; while the south pole, 
in its turn, is brought into tlie light of the Sun, whereby the whole Antarctic 
region comes into the circle of perpetual illumination. It is now tliat the 
Southern Hemisphere enjoys all those advantages with which the Northern 
Ilemisphere was favoured on the 21st of June ; while the Northern Hemis- 
phere, in its turn, undergoes the dreariness of winter, with short days and long 
nights. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

HARVEST 3I00N — HORIZONTAL MOON. 

The daily progress of the Moon in her orbit, from west 
to east, causes her to rise, at a mean rate, 48 minutes and 
44 seconds later every day than on the preceding. But 
in places of considerable latitude, a remarkable deviation 
from this rule takes place, especially about the time of 
harvest.^ when the full Moon rises to us for several nights 
together, only from 18 to 2-5 minutes later in one day, than 
on that immediately preceding. From the benefit which 
her light affords, in lengthening out the day, when the hus- 
bandmen are gathering in the fruits of the Earth, the full 
moon, under these circumstances, has acquired the name of 
Harvest Moon. 

It is believed that this fact was observed by persons engaged in agriculture, 
at a much earlier period trian that in which it was noticed by astronomers 
The former ascribed it to the goodness of the Deity; not doubting but that 
he had so ordered it for their advantage. 

About the equator, the Moon rises throughout the year 
with nearly the equal intervals of 48f minutes ; and there 
the harvest moon is unknown. 

What is the mean difference of time in the daily rising of the Moon ? Under what cir- 
eumstanees is there a material deviation from this rule? Whence tiie name of Harvest 
Moon ? B-j whom was this ■phenomenon first observed, and to what did they attritnus 
it/ "V^ hy is the Harvest Moon unknown at the equator ? 



284 HARVEST MOON. 

At the polai circles, the autumnal full Moon,, from htr first 
lo her third quarter, rises a:? the Sun sets ; and at the poles, 
where the Sun is absent during one half of the year, the 
winter full Moons, from the first to the third quarter, shine 
constantly without setting. 

By this, it is not meant that the Moon continues full from her first to her 
third quarter; but that she never sets to the North Polar regions, wlien. at 
this season of the year, she is within 90'^ of that point in her orbit where 
she is at her full. In other words : as the Sun illumines the south pole 
during one half of its yearly revolution, so the Moon, being opposite to the 
Sun at her full, must illumine [he opposite pole, during half of her levoluiiop 
about the Earth. Tlie phenomenon of the harvest Moon may be thus exe.in- 
plified by means of the globe : 

Rectify the globe to the latitude of the place, put a patch or piece of wa- 
fer in the ecliptic, on the point Aries, and mark every 12° preceding and 
following that point, to the number of ten or twelve marks on each side 
of it ; bring the equinoctial point marked by the wafer to the eastern edge 
of the horizon, and set the index to 12; turn the globe westward till the 
other marks successively come to the liorizon. and observe the hours passed 
over by the index;" the intervals of time between the marks coming to the 
horizon, will show the diurnal difference of time between the Moon's rising. 
If these marks be brought to the western edge of the horizon in the same 
manner, it will show the diurnal difference between the Moon's settino. 

Fi-ora this pj-ohlem it will also appear, that, when there is the least riinerence 
between the times of the Moon's rising, there will be the greatest difference 
betv;een the times of her setting, and the contrary. 

The reason why you mark every 12° is, that the Moon gains 12° 11' 
on the apparent course of the Sun every day, and these marks serve to 
denote the place of the Moon from day to day. It is true, this process sup- 
poses' that the Moon revolves in the plane of the ecliptic, which is not the 
case ; yet her orbit so nearly coincides with the ecliptic, (differing only 
5° 9' from it,) that they may, for the convenience of illustration, be consid- 
ered as coinciding ; that is, we may take the ecliptic for the representativn 
of the Moon's orbit. 

The different lengths of the lunar night, at different lati- 
tudes, is OAving to the different angles made by the horizon 
and different parts; of the Moon's orbit; or in other words, 
by the Moon's orbit lying sometimes more oblique lo the 
horizon than at others. In the latitude of London, for ex- 
ample, as much of the ecliptic rises about Pisces and Aries 
in two hours as the Moon goes throu2:h in six days ; there- 
fore while the Moon is in these signs, she difiers but two 
hours in rising for six days together; that is, one day with 
another, she rises about 20 minutes later every day than on 
the preceding. 

The parts or signs of the ecliptic which rise with the 
smallest angXe^ set with the greatest j and those which rise 
with the greatest, set with the least. And whenever this 
angle is least, a greater portion of the ecliptic rises in equal 
times than when the angle is larger. Therefore, when the 



How is it at the polar circles, and the poles? What is meant by the full Moon'a 
thining from the first to the third quarter? How may the phenoyncnon be exejupli- 
fied ¥j means of the artificial g/obe ? Why do you nuirk every 12« of the ecliptic in 
this problem,? What does this process of ilhuttrotion suppose, wh/ch is nut true, 
and why is it adopted? To what is the difterent lengtha of the lunar night, in JiflKrent 
'atitudos, owing ? Give an example How i}n *hose parts of the ecliptic set, which rit4 
with tlio smallest angles, and the contrary 3 



HARVEST MOON. 283 

Moon is m those signs which rise or set with the smallest 
angles, she rises or sets with the least difference of time ; 
but when she is in those signs which rise or set with the 
greatest angles, she rises or sets with the greatest differ- 
ence of time. 

Let the globe, for example, be rectified to the latitude of New Ycrk, 
40=' 42' 40"," with Cancer cq the meridian, and Libra rising in the east. In 
this position, the ecliptic has a high elevation, making an angle with the ho- 
rizon of 72i3. 

But let ihe globe be turned half round on its axis, tiU Capricorn comes 
to the meridian, and Aries rises in the east, then the ecliptic will have a 
low elevation above the horizon, making an angle with it of only 2oJ°. This 
angle is 47^ less than the former angle, and is equal to the distance" between 
the tropics. 

In northern latitudes, the smallest angle made by the 
ecliptic and horizon, is when Aries rises j at which time 
Libra sets ; the greatest is, when Libra rises and Aries sets. 
The ecliptic rises fastest about Aries, and slowest about 
Libra. Though Pisces and Aries make an angle of only 
25^° with the horizon ifhen they rise, to those who live in 
the latitude of New York, yet the same signs, when they 
set, make an angle of 72^-°. The daily difference of the 
Moon's rising, wlien in these signs, is, in New England, 
about 22 minutes ; but when she is in the opposite signs, 
Virgo and Libra, the daily difference of her rising is al- 
most four times as great, being about one hour and a 
quarter. 

As the Moon can never be full but when she is opposite 
to the Sun, and the Sun is never in Virgo or Libra except 
in our autumnal months, September and October, it is evident 
that the Moon is never full in the opposite signs, Pisces and 
Aries, except in those two months. We can therefore have 
only two full Moons in a year, which rise, for a week togeth- 
er, very near the time of sun-set. — The former of these is 
called the Harvest Moon, and the latter, the Hunter's Moon. 

Although there can be but two full Moons in the year 
that rise with so little variation of time, yet the phenomenon 
of the Moon's rising for a week together so nearly at the 
sam^ ime, occurs every month, in some part of her course 
or th« 3ther. 

In Winter, the signs Pisces and Aries rise about noon; hence the rising of 
tlie Moon is not then regarded nor perceived. 

In Spring, these signs r;se icith Ihe Si/n, because he is then in them; and 
as the Moon changes" while passing through the same sign with the Sun, it 
mast then he the change, and hence invisible. 

What results from this in regard to the Moon? H070 may this be illustrated on the 
globe I In northern latitudes, what signs rise and set with the least angles? What with 
the ereatest? What parts of tlie ecliptic rise fastest, and which slowest? Give an ex- 
ample. What is the daily difference of the Moon's rising and setting, in these signs, in 
the latitude of New York ? Hosv many full Moons in a year, wliich rise with so little dif- 
tcrenceoftime? Why are not tliese phenomena observed in the same signs, in Win 
ter. Spring, and Summer f 



2S6 HORIZONTAL MOON. 

Ill Summer, they rise about midnight, when the Moon is in her thiriaiiU 
ler. On account of her rising so late, and giving but little light, her risio* 

passes unobserved. 

To the inhabitants at the equator, the north and south 
poles appear in the horizon ; and therefore the ecliptic makes 
the same angle southward with the horizon when Aries rises, 
as it does northward when Libra rises ; consequently the 
Moon rises and sets not only with angles nearly equal, but 
at equal intervals of time, all the year round: Hence, there 
is no harvest Moon at the equator. The farther any place 
is from the equator, if it be not beyond the polar circles, the 
angle which the ecliptic makes with the horizon gradually 
diminishes when Pisces and Aries rise. 

Although in northern latitudes, the autumnal full Moons 
are in Pisces and Aries ; yet in southern latitudes it is just 
the reverse, because the seasons are so : — for Virgo and 
Libra rise at as small angles with the horizon in southern 
latitudes, as Pisces and Aries do in the northern ; and there- 
fore the harvest Moons are just as regular on one side of the 
equator as on the other. 

At the polar circles, the full Moon neither rises in summer, 
nor sets in winter. For the winter full Moon being as high 
'n the ecliptic as the summer Sun, she must continue, while 
passing through the northern signs, above the horizon ; and 
the summer full Moon being as low in the ecliptic as the 
winter Sun, can no more rise, when passing through the 
southern signs, than he does. 

The horizontal Moon. — The great apparent magnitude 
of the Moon, and indeed of the Sun, at rising and setting, is 
a phenomenon which has greatly embarrassed almost all 
who have endeavoured to account for it. According to the 
ordinary laws of vision, they should appear to be least when 
nearest the horizon, being then farthest from the eyt j and 
yet the reverse of this is found to be true. The apj^aicnt 
diameter of the Moon, when viewed in the horizon t) the 
naked eye, is two or three times larger than when at liie 
altitude of thirty or forty degrees ; and yet when measured 
by an instrument her diameter is not increased at all. 

Both the Sun and the Moon subtend a greater ani:le when on the meridi- 
an, than they do in the horizon, because they are then actually nearer the 
place of the spectator, by the whole seini-diaiueter of the Earlh. 

Explain why there is no Harvest Moon at the equator. The farthe,r any place is from 
the efjuator, how is fiie angle between the ecliptic and the horizon, when P /see* and 
Aries rise? Do the Harvest Moon.s happen as rc<rularly, and in the same months, on the 
sovrh side of the equator, as on the north I Why does not the full Moon ii«o in sium.iicr 
po' set in winter, to the inliabitants of the polar circles? According to >iie (■r-lnui.' .twk 
ot vision, how ought the? magnitudes of the -Sun and Mfwn to aprxar- wir i< i-* ' ar- 
est the horizon ? \Vli;it is the fact? How much largi-r does the i\lo..i( — - , *i« 

naked eye. wii.-n m the imrizon, than when at the altitude of thirty yt i-^. , ,.« -I 
Where, in realiry, do the Sun and Moon subtend the Largest angle 1 Why UUtt^ 



REFRACTION. 287 

This apparent increase of magnitude in the horizontaJ 
Moon, is chiefly an optical illusion, produced by the concav- 
ity of the heavens appearing to the eye to be a less portion ' 
of a spherical surface than a hemisphere. The eye is ac- 
customed to estimate the distance between any two objects 
m the heavens by the quantity of sky that appears to lie be- 
tween them ; as upon the Earth we estimate it by the quan- 
tity of ground that lies between them. Now when the Sun 
01- Moon is just emerging above the eastern horizon, oi 
sinking beneath the western, the distance of the intervening 
landscape over which they are seen, contributes, together 
with the refraction of the atmosphere, to exaggerate our 
estimate of their real magnitudes. 



CHAPTER XXV. 



REFRACTION TWILIGHT. 

The rays of hght in passing out of one medium into ano- 
ther of a different density, deviate from a straight course \ 
and if the density of the latter medium continually increase, 
the rays of light in passing through it, will deviate more and 
more from a right line towards a curve, in passing to the eye 
of an observer. From this cause all the heavenly bodies, 
except when in the zenith, appear higher than they really 
are. This bending of the rays of light, giving to the heaven- 
ly bodies an apparent elevation above their true places, is 
called Refraction. 

It is in consequence of the refracting power of the atmos- 
phere that all heavenly bodies are seen for a short time be- 
foTP they risein the horizon, and also after they have sunk 
hflov it. At some periods of the year the Sun appears 5 
^^'rtites longer, morning and evening, and about 3^ minutes 
longer every day, at a mean rate, than he would do were 
there no refraction. The average amount of refraction for 
an object half way between the horizon and the zenith, >r 
at an apparent altitude of 45*^, is but one sixtieth of a degree, 
a quantity hardly sensible to the naked eye; but at the visi- 
ble horizon it amounts to 33' of a degree, which is rather 

How is the apparent increase of magnitude in the horizontal Moon, accounted for? 
How are tlie rays of light affected in passing out of one medium into another, of a d^fte^ 
ent density? How, if the density of the latter medium continually increase ? What a> 
tronomical phenomenon results from this cause? What is this bending of the rays o(' 
Hpht out of their course called? What effect does refraction have upon the apparent 
rising and setting oftheheavenlybna.es. How much longer do we see the Sun, 
morning and evening ihan we should if t^' ere were no refraction? What is the 
average amount of refraction fo an object half way bcti^-^va thn horizon and the 
aeuith? Wha'. is '.t in the h lieon ! 



ZW REFRACTION. 

more than the greatest apparent diameter of either the Sun 

or the Moon. 

Hence it follows, that when we see the lower edjre of the 
Sun or Moon just apparently resting on the horiz< a, their 
whole disc is in reality below it. and would be enl'iely out 
of sight and concealed by the convexity of the Eartl , but for 
the bending, which the rays of light have undergone in their 
passage through the air to the observer's eye. 

The following general notions of its amount, and law of 
variations, should be borne in mind : 

1. In the zenith there is no refraction ; a celestial object, 
situated directly over head, is seen in its true position, as it 
there were no atmosphere. 

2. In descending fron:i the zenith to the horizon, the refrac- 
tion continually increases ; objects near the horizon appear- 
ing more elevated by it than those of a higher altitude. 

3. The rate of its increase is nearly in proportion to the 
apparent angular distance of the object from the zenith. 
But this rule, which is not far from the truth, at moderate 
zenith distances, ceases to give correct results in the vicinity 
of the horizon, where the law becomes much more compli- 
cated in its expression. 

The effects of refraction must be familiar to every person who has seeo 
a walking stick partially plucged into a river, or other collection of water. 
While the stick is held upright, it appears straight, as usual, because there 
is no refraction in tliis position ; but if it be ever so little incUned, the re- 
fraction takes place, and the slick appears bent ; if the inclination be in- 
creased, the refraction is also increased. 

Another easy and familiar illustration of the effect of refraction may b« 
thus obtained : — Put any small object, as a piece of money, into an empty 
basin, as near the centre as possible, asid retire to such a distance as just to 
lose sight of the object. Let as assistant then pour water in the basin, and 
the object will soon appear. Retire again till it is no longer seen ; let more 
water be added, and it will again appear. The experiment may be re- 
peated till the basin is full. The edge of the basin may be supposed to 
represent the horizon; the water, the atmosphere ; and the piece of money, 
the Sun, or other objeot which is thus made to appear by the power of re- 
fraction, when otherwise it would be invisible. 

It follows from this, that one obvious effect of refraction 
must be to shorten the duration of night and darkness, by 
prolonging the apparent stay of the Sun and Moon above 
the horizon. But even after they appear to have set, the in- 
fluence of the atmosphere still continues to send us a portion 
if their light; not, indeed, by direct transmission, but by 
rejiection : — for as long as the Sun continues to illuminate 

Whaj intereating facts result from this truth'' What is the first eeneral law of atmos- 
pheric refraction? What is the second general law? What is the third? Mention a 
fojniliar instance of refraction often seen in loaler. Mention some familiar experi- 
ment, to illustrate refraction, and shmo its- ovpU cation, to a8tr(/nomy7 How doet 
this principle affect the duration of nocturnal darkne-ss ? By what principle is it that the 
atmosphere sends us a portion of the solar light, for a considerable time '^ore tW» *■ 
itteii, and after it has set? 



REFRAv^TION. 289 

any portion of the aimosphere which is abov« the horizon 
the light from this portion is reflected to the Earth, and it is 
this that causes twilight. 

In the morning, when the Sun arrives at 1S° below the 
horizon, his rays pass over our heads into the higher region 
of the atmosphere, and are thence reflected, or as it were, 
bent down to the Earth. The day is then said to dawn, and 
the light gradually increases until the Sun appears above 
the horizon : this is called Morning Twilight, or Aurora, 
which the heathens personified as a goddess. They assigned 
to her the office of opening the Gates of the East, to intro- 
duce the chariot of Apollo or Phmhus. 

In the evening, after sunset, the rays of the Sun continue 
to illuQiinate the atmosphere, till he sinks IS'^ below the 
horizon, and a similar etTect, called the Eoening Twilight^ 
is produced, only in an inverse progression, for the twilight 
Qow gradually becomes fainter till it is lost in dark night. 

The quantity of reflection and the duration of twilight are 
much influenced by the changes which are perpetually tak- 
ing place with respect to the heat and cold, the dryness or 
moisture, &c. of the atmosphere. The height of the atmos- 
phere, also, has an influence in determining the duration of 
twilight : Thus in winter, when the air is condensed with 
cold, and the atmosphere upon that account lower, the twi- 
light will be shorter ; and in summer, when the limits of the 
atmosphere are extended by the rarefaction and dilation of 
the air of which it consists, the duration of the twilight will 
be longer. And for the same reason, the morning twilight, 
(the air being at that time condensed and contracted by the 
cold of the preceding night,) will be shorter than the even- 
ing twilight, when the air is more dilated and expanded. 

It is entirely owing to the reflecting power of the atmos- 
phere that the heavens appear bright in the day time. For 
without such a power, only that part of the heavens would 
be luminous in which the Sun is placed 5 and, if we should 
turn our backs to the Sun, the whole heavens would appeal 
as dark as in the night, and the stars, even at noon day, 
would be seen as clear as in the nocturnal sky. 

In regions of the Earth situated towards the poles, the 
Sun, during then summer months, is never more than IS® 
below the horizon ; consequently their twilight continues 

What is Tioilight 7 How is ft occasioned? How is tJie Evening Twilight produced* 
By what are the quantity of refleclion, and the duration of t^viJight, considerably inflo- 
enced? Why is twilight shorter in winter? Why longer is summer:- "Why is the mora- 
Big twihght shorter than the evening twilight? To what is it entirely owing, that tbe 
heavens appear bri°-ht in the day 'nne? How would the heavens appear, if it wr^e not 
tor Mas power? What are the duration and advantages of fwilight in liigh latitudes ^ 

25 



29& . AURORA B( REALIS. 

c'arins: the whole night. The same cause has a tendency 
to diminish the gloom of the long polar nights ; for as far 
north as in lat. 84° 32f' the Sun even when at the winter 
solstice approaches to within 18° of the horizon, and affords 
a short twilight once in 24 hours, and the pole itself is lett 
in total darkness not more than 80 days. 

There is still another cause which has a tendency to di- 
minish the length of the polar nights, the extraordinary 
refraction occasioned by the extreme density of the air in 
those regions. This is so great, as to bring the Sun above the 
horizon some days before it should appear, according to 
calculation. 

A remarkable phenomenon of this kind was observed by the Dutch navi- 
gators who wintered in Nova Zembla, in the year 1596. After enduring a 
continual night of three months, they were agreeably surprised to find that 
the Sun began to rise seventeen days sooner tlian according to computation! 
The observed altitude of the pole, at the place, (says Dr. Smith,) being only 
76°, It is impossible to account for' the phenomenon, otherwise, than by sup- 
posing an extraordinary refraction of the Sun's rays. Kepler computes that 
the Sun was almost 5° below the horizon when he first appeared ; and con- 
sequisntly, that the refraction of his rays was about 10 times greater than 
i\\h us. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

AURORA BOREALIS. 

The sublime and beautiful phenomena presented by tne 
Aurora Botealis, or Northern Lights, as they are called, 
have been in all ages a source of admiration and wonder 
alike to the peasant and the philosopher. In the regions of 
the north, they are regarded by the ignorant with supersti- 
tious dread, as harbingers of evil ; while all agree in placing 
ihem among the unexplained wonders of nature. 

These lights, or meteoric coruscations, are more brilliant 
in the arctic regions, appearing mostly in the winter season 
and in frosty weather. They commonly appear at twilight 
near the horizon, and sometimes continue in that state for 
several hours without any sensible motion; after which 
they send forth streams of stronger light, shooting with 
great velocity up to the zenith, emulating, not unfrequently, 
the lightning in vividness, and the rainbow in colouring ; and 
again, silently rising in a compact majestic arch of steady 

Reh te a remarkable phenomenon of this kind. How are the phenomena of the Aa« 
rora B. realis regarded by the ignorant? In what do all agree, respecting theni? Whem 
are these appearances m^st fi-equent and brilliant? Describe the timo« and meuiner w 
«Sfr appearance 



AURORA BOREALIS. 



291 



white light, apparently durable and immoveable, and yet so 
3vanescent, that while the beholder looks upon it, it is gone 

At other limes, they cover the whole hemisphere with 
their flickering and fantastic coruscations. On these oc- 
casions their motions are amazingly quick, and they aston- 
rsh the spectator with rapid changes of form. They break 
out in places where none were seen before, skimming brisk- 
ly along the heavens ; then they are suddenly extinguished, 
leaving behind a uniform dusky track, which, again, is bril- 
liantly illuminated in the same manner, and as suddenly left 
a dull blank. Some nights they assume the appearance of 
vast columns; exhibiting on one side tints of the deepest 
yellow, and on the other, melting away till they become un- 
distinguishable from the surrounding sky. They have gen- 
erally a strong tremulous motion from end to end, which 
continues till the whole vanishes. 

j\laupp.rtuis relates, that in Lapland, "the sky was some- 
times tinged with so deep a red that the constellation Orion 
looked as though it were dipped in blood, and that the peo- 
ple fancied they saw armies engaged, fiery chariots, and a 
thousand prodigies." Gmelin relates, that, '' in Siberia, on 
the confines of the icy sea, the spectral forms appear like 
rushing armies; and that the hissing crackling noises of 
those aerial fire-works so terrify the dogs and the hunters, 
that they fall prostrate on the ground, and will not move 
while the raging host is passing." 

Kerguelen describes '• the night, between Iceland and the 
Fei'TO Islands, as brilliant as the day," — the heavens being 
on fire with flames of red and white light, changing to col- 
umns and arches, and at length confounded in a brilliant 
chaos of cones, pyramids, radii, sheaves, arrows, and globes 
of fire. 

But the evidence of Capt. Parry is of more value thaii 
that of ihe earlier travellers, as he examined the pheno- 
mena under the most favourable circumstances, during a 
period of twenty-seven consecutive months, and because his 
observations are uninfluenced by imagination. He speaks 
of the shifting figures, the spires and pyramids, the majestic 
arches, and the sparkling, bands and stars which appeared 
withm the arctic circle, as surpassing his powers of descrip- 
tion. They are indeed sufficient to enlist the superstitious 
feelings of any people not fortified by religion and philosophy. 



Describe .their appearance in Lapland as related by Maupertiiis, and its effect upon tha 
mtiabitants. Describe its appearance between Iceland and the Ferro islands, as related br 
Kerguelen. Whose testinicjny on this subject is ofvnore value than that of former travel- 
wrs ? ^\ hy ? How does he desciiuo the scenes ne witj lessed during the polar nifthts ) 



292 AURORA BOREALIS. 

The colours of the polar lights, are of various tints. The 
rays or beams are steel gray, yellowish gray, pea greeu, 
celandine green, gold yellow, violet blue, purple, sometimes 
rose red, crimson red, blood red, greenish red, orange red, 
and lake red. The arches are sometimes nearly black, pass 
ing into violet blue, gray, gold yellow, or white bounded 
by an edge of yellow. The lustre of these lights varies in 
kind as well as intensity. Sometimes it is pearly, some- 
times imperfectly vitreous, sometimes metallic. Its degree 
of intensity varies from a very faint radiance to a light near- 
ly equalling that of the Moon. 

Many theories have been proposed to account for this 
wonderful phenomenon, but there seems to be none which 
is entirely satisfactory. One of the first conjectures on record 
attributes it to inflammable vapours ascending from the Earth 
into the polar atmosphere, and there ignited by electricity. 
Dr. Halley objects to (his hypothesis, that the cause was in- 
adequate to produce the effect. He was of opinion that the 
poles of the Earth were in some way connected with the au- 
rora ; that the Earth was hollow, having within it a mag- 
netic sphere, and that the magnetic effluvia, in passing from 
the north to the south, might become visible in the northern 
hemisphere. 

That the aurora borealis is, to some extent, a magnetical 
phenomenon, is thought, even by others, to be pretty clearly 
established by the following considerations. 

1. It has been observed, that when the aurora appears 
near the northern horizon in the form of an arch, the middle 
of it is not in the direction of the true north, but in that of 
the magnetic needle at the place of observation; and that 
when the arch rises towards the zenith, it constantly crosses 
the heavens at right angles, not to the true magnetic meri- 
dian. 

2. When the beams of the aurora shoot up so as to pass 
the zenith, Avhich is sometimes the case, the point of their 
convergence is in the direction of the prolongation of the 
dipping needle at the place of observation. 

3. It has also been observed, that during the appearance 
of an active and brilliant aurora, the magnetic needle of- 
ten becomes restless, varies sometimes several degrees, 
and does not resume its former position until after several 
hours. 

From these facts, it has been generally inferred that the 

Describe the colours of the Aurora light. What is one of the earliest theories a<lvarice<l 
to explain tliis phenomenon? How tii(f Dr. Halley protwse to account for it? What ob 
servations have led pretty {jenerally to Ute ponclusion, that the northern lights are to boiu» 
exteni a nagnetical pheiiomenon ? 



PARALLAX OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES. 



293 



auroia is in some way connected with the magnetism of 
the Earth ; and that the simultaneous appearance of me 
meteor, and the disturbance of the needle, are either rela- 
ted as cause and effect, or as the common result of some 
more general and unknown cause. Dr. Young, in his lec- 
tures, is very certain that the pheoomenon in question is in- 
timately connected with electro-magnetism, and ascribes 
the light of the aurora to the illuminated agency of electri- 
city upon the maguetical substance. 

It may be remarked, in support of the electro-magnetic theorv, that in 
magnetism, tlie agency of electricity is now clearly established; and it can 
hardly be doubted tliat the phenomena both of electricity and magnetism 
are produced by one and the same cause ; inasmuch as magnetism may be 
induced ty electricity, and the electric spark, has been drawn from the 
magnet. 

Sir John Herschel also attributes the appearance of the 
aurora to the agency of electricity. This wonderful agent, 
says he, which we see in intense activity in lightning, and 
in a feebler and more diffused form traversing the upper 
regions of the atmosphere in the northern lights, is present, 
probably, in immense abundance in every form of mattei 
which surrounds us, but becomes sensible, only when dis 
tarbed by excitements of peculiar kinds. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 



PARALLAX OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES. 



Parallax is the difference between the altitude of any 
celestial object, seen from the Earth's surface, and the alti- 
tude of the same object, seen at the same time from the 
Earth's centre; or, it is the angle under which the semi- 
diameter of the Earth would appear, as seen from the object. 

The true place of a celestial body, is that point of the 
heavens in which it would be seen by an eye placed at the 
centre of the Earth. The apparent place is that point of 
the heavens where the body is seen from the surface of 
the Eaith. The parallax of a heavenly body is greatest, 
when in the horizon ; and is called the horizontal parallax. 
Parallax decreases, as the body ascends toward the zenith^ 
at which place it is nothing. 

The nearer a heavenly body is to the Earth, the greatet 

Wl>at is the opinion of Dr. Young in regard to their cause ? What sonsiderntion mtuf 
be addziced in farther support of the electro-magnetic thtornt 'Vr, «.»-•* _;^,j, ^a- 
John Herschel ascribe the aurora? What are his ol' -r.-lioiis upon tne subject? V."«tt 
IS parallax ? What is the true place of a celestial body ? What is the ap-partrnt place I 
Where is the parallax of a heavenly boriv the greatest? What is tliis larallai: p.aU»d? 

25* 



294 PARALLAX OF THE HEAVENLr BODIES. 

Ls Its parallax ; hence the Moon has the greatest parallax 
of all the heavenly bodies, while the fixed stars, from then 
immense distance, have no parallax;* the semi-diameter of 
the Earth, at sucl. a distance, being no more than a point. 

As the effect of parallax on a heavenly body, is to depress 
it helow its true place, it must necessarily affect its right 
ascension and declination, its latitude and longitude. On 
this account, the parallax of the Sun and Moon must be 
added to their apparent altitude, in order to obtain their 
true altitude. 

Thf^rue altitude of the Sun and Moon, except when in the zenith, is al- 
ways affected, more or less, both by parallax and refraction, but always 
ia a contrary manner. Hence the mariner, in finding the latitude at sea, 
always adds' the parallax, and substracts the refraction, to and from the 
Sun's observed altitude, in order to obtain the true altitude, and thence the 
latitude. 

The principles of parallax are of great importance to as- 
tronomy, as they enable us to determine the distances of 
the heavenly bodies from the Earth, the magnitudes of the 
planets, and the dimessions of their orbits. 

The Sun's horizontal parallax being accurately known, 
the Earth's distance from the Sun becomes known; and the 
Earth's distance from the Sun bemg known, that of all the 
planets may be known also, because we know the exact 
periods of their sidereal revolutions, and according to the 
third law of Kepler, the squares of the times of their revolu- 
tions are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances. 
Hence, the first great desideratum in astronomy, where 
measure and magnitude are concerned, is the determination 
of the true parallax. 

At the late council of astronomers, assembled in Lon- 
don, from the most learned nations in Europe, the Sun's 
mean horizontal parallax was settled, as the result of their 
united observations, at 0*^ 0' 8''.5776. — Now the value of 
radius, expressed likewise in seconds, is 206264".8; and 
this divided by S^'-STTB, gives 24047 for the distance of the 
Sun from the Earth, in semidiaraeters of the latter. If we 
take the eg-zm^ormZ semidiameter of the Earth as sanction- 
ed by the same tribunal, at (7924-^2=) 3962 miles, we 
shall have 24047X3962=95,273,869 miles for the Sun's 
true distance. 



* See Chapter XIV., on the number and distance of the Stars. 

How does the parallax of a body varj', with its altitude? How is it affected by di»- 
fence? Give an example. AV'hat, then, are the necessary effects of parallax on the ap- 
pearance of a heavenly body ? How, then, can we i)btain the true altitutie of the Sun or 
Moon ? Do parallax and refraction affect the altititdc alike ? Give an e-xample. 
Why are the principles of parallax of }:reat importance to a.stronomy ? If the .Sun's paral- 

tiA Jh i n w :■. ;he distances of all the |)lanets \>e known also' What inference 

may be derived from thus in regard to the imoortance of parallax 



PROBLEMS. 



295 



Both the principle and the calculation of this element may 
be illustrated by a reference to the diagram on Plate I, of 
•he Atlas: Thus— the parallactic angle AES = 8^5776: 
is to the Earth's semidiaraeter as = 3962 miles : : as radius 
= 206264. ''8: is to the distance ES = 95,273,869 miles, as 
before. 

Again : The mean horizontal parallax of the Moon is 
0*^ 57' IT', or 3431''. In this problem, the parallactic angle 
AMS is 0° 57' 11" = 3431" ; and 3431" : is to 3962 miles : : 
as 206264".8: is 238,161 miles, for the Moon's mean dis- 
tance from the Earth MS. — See Chapter on the Number 
and Distance of the Stars. 



CHAPTER XI. 



PROBLEMS AND TABLES. 

PROBLEM I. 
TO CONVERT DEGREES, &C. INTO TIME. 

Rule 1. — Divide the degrees by 15, for hours ; and mul- 
tiply the remainder, if any, by 4, for minutes. 

2. Divide the odd minutes and seconds in the same man- 
ner by 15 for minutes, seconds, &c. and multiply each re- 
mainder by 4, for the next lower denomination. 
Example 1. — Convert 32" 34' 45" into time. 
Thus, 32° - 15 = 2h. 8' 

34 -f- 15 = 2 16" 
45 - 15 = 3 



Ans. 32^34'45"= 2h. 10' 19'' the time. 

Example 2. — If it is 12 o'clock at this place, vi^hat is the 
time 20° east of us ? 

Thus, fifteen in 20°, once, and five over; the once is 1 
hour, and the 5 multiplied by 4, gives 20 minutes: the time 
i-s then 1 hour and 20 minutes past 12. 

Example 3. — The longitude of Hartford is 72° 50' west 
of Greenwich ; what time is it at Greenwich when it is 12 
o'clock at Hartford ? 

Ans. 4 h. 51 min. 20 sec. 

Example 4. — When it is 12 o'clock at Greenwich, what 
IS the time at Hartford ? Ans. 7h. 8m. 40 sec. A. M. 

Note— Table VIII. is designed to facilitate calculations of this kind. Tlie 
degrees being placed in oie column, and the corresponding tune in another 



896 PROBLEMS. 

a neeils no explanation, except to observe that degrees in the ieft liaiid 
columns may be considered as so many minutes, instead of decrees; in 
winch case, the corresponding time in the adjoining column, must be read 
as minutes and seconds, instead of hours and minutes. In like manner, the 
degrees in the left hand column may be read as seconds, and the correspond- 
■'ng time, as seconds and thirds. 
Example. --Find, by the table, the time corresponding to 32° 34' 45'", 
Thus : Against 320 is 2 h. 8 min. 

34' " 2 16 sec. 

45" " 3 



Answer as above, 2h. 10m. 19 s. 

PROBLEM n. 
TO CONVERT TIME INTO DEGREES, &C. 

Rule. — Multiply the hours by 15, and to the product add 

one fourth of the minutes, seconds, &c., observing that eve- 

ly minute of time makes ^°, and every second of time, :|-'. 

Example 1. — In 2 hours, 10 minutes, and 19 seconds, 

iiow many degrees ? 

Thus: 2h. 10 m. 19 s 

15 



Add 10 quarters, or \ of the mm. 2 30' 

Add 19 quarters, or \ of the sec. 4 



45^ 



Ans. 32° 34' 45" 

This problem is readily solved by means of Table IX. without the labour oi 
calculation : 

Thus : 2 hours =30° 

10 minutes = 2 30' 

19 seconds = 4 45" 



Ans. 32° 34' 45" 

Ex. 2. — When it is 12 o'clock at Hartford, it is 4 hours 
51 minutes, and 20 seconds past noon at Greenwich ; how 
manv degrees is Hartford west of Greenv/ich? 

Tims: 15 times 4 is 60— added to | of 51, is 72'' 45" 
and this increased by ^ of 20, is 72° 50.' Ans. 

Ex. 3. — A Liverpool packet, after sailing several dayi 
from New York, finds the time by the Sun 2 hours and 4C 
minutes later than by the ship's chronometer: how far has 
the ship progressed on her way ? 

Ex. 4. — A vessel leaves Boston, and having been tossed 
about in foul weather for some days, finds, that when it is 
12 o'clock by the Sun, it is only 11 o'clock and 50 minutes 
by the watch ; is the vessel east or west of Boston ; and 
how many degrees? 

Ex 5. — The moment of greatest da»-knf ss during the aD 



PROBLEMS. 



297 



nular eclipse of 1831, took place at New Haven, 10 minutes 
after 1 o'clock. A gentleman reports that it happened pre- 
cisely at 1, where he observed it; and another, that it was 
5 minutes after 1 where he saw it : Quere. How far east 
or west were these gentlemen from each other, and how 
many degrees from New Haven ? 

PROBLEM m. 

TO FIND WHAT STARS ARE ON THE MERIDIAN AT NINE o'CLOCK 
IN THE EVENING OF ANY GIVEN DAY. 

Rule. — Look for the given day of the month, at the bot- 
tom of the maps, and all the stars having the same degree 
of right ascension will be on the meridian at that time. 

Example 1. — What stars will be on the meridian at 9 
o'clock, the 19th of January ? 

Solution. — On Plate III. I find that the principal stars 
standing over against the 19th of January, are Rigel and 
Capeila. 

Ex. 2. — What stars are on the meridian the 20th of De- 
cember? Ans. Menkar and Algol. 



PROBLEM IV. 
ANY STAR BEING GIVEN, TO FIND WHEN IT CULMINATES, 

Rule. — Find the star's right ascension in the table, or by 
the map, (oa the equinoctial,) and the day of the month at 
the top or bottom of the map will be the day on which it 
culminates at 9 o'clock. 

Example 1. — At what time is the bright star Sirius on the 
meridian? 

Solution. — I find by the table, and by the map, that the 
right ascension of Sirius is 6 hours and about 38 minutes ; 
and the time corresponding to this, at the bottom of the 
map, is the Uth of February. 

Ex. 2.— At what time is Alpheratz, in the head of Andro- 
meda, on the meridian ? Ans. The 9th of November. 

PROBLEM V. 

THE RIGHT ASCENSION AND DECLINATION OF A PLANET BEING 
GI\2N, TO FIND ITS PLACE ON THE MAP. 

Rule.— Find the right ascension and declination of the 
planet on the map, and that will be its place for the given 
day. 



898 PROBLEMS. 

Example 1. — VeDUs's right ascension on the l»t of Jan- 
uary, 1833, was 21 hours, 30 minutes, and her declination 
16^° south; required her situation on the map? 

Solution. — On the right hand of the Plate II. I count otT 
16f° from the equinoctial, on the marginal scale south, and 
from thatpointj 30 minutes to the left, or just half the dis- 
tance between the XXI. and XXII. meridian of right as- 
cension, and find that Venus, that day, is within two degrees 
of Delta Capricorni, near the constellation Aquarius, in the 
zodiac. 

Note. — It is to be remembered, that the planets will always be found 
within the limits of the zodiac, as represented in the maps. By means of 
Table VIL the pupil can find at any time the situations of all the visible 
planets, on the maps; and this will enable him to determine their position 
m the heavensj without a chance of mistake. By this means, too, he can 
draw for himself the path of the planets from month to month, and trace 
their course among the stars. This is a pleasant and useful exercise, and 
is practised extensively in some academies. The pupil draws the map in 
the first place, or such a portion of it as to include the zodiacal constella- 
tions ; then, having dotted the position of the planets from day to day, as 
indicated in Table VII., their path is easily traced with a pen or pencil. 

Ex. 2. — Mars' right ascension on the 13th of March, 1833. 
is 5 hours, 1 minute, and his declination 24^^ north; requir- 
ed his situation on the map ? 

Solution. — I find the fifth hour line or meridian of right 
ascension on Plate III. and counting upwards from the equi- 
noctial 24^", I find that Mars is between the horns of 
Taurus, and about 5° S. W. of Beta Aurigoe. 

Ex. 3. — Required the position of Jupiter and Saturn on 
the 13th of February and the 25th of May ? 

When the right ascension and declination of the planets are not given, 
they are to be sought in Table VII. 

PROBLEM VI. 

rO FIND AT WHAT MOMENT ANY STAR WILL PASS THE MERIDIAN 

ON A GIVEN DAY. 

Rule. — Substract the right ascension of the Sun from the 
starts right ascension, found in the tables; observing to add 
24 hours to the star's right ascension, if less than the Sun's, 
and the difference will show how may hours the star culmi- 
nates after the Sun. 

Example 1. — At what time will Procyon pass themeridi 
an the 24th of Februarv ? 

Solution.— R. A. of Procyon 7h. 30m. 33s.-h24h. 

31 30' 33" 

R. A. of Sun, 24th of Feb. 22 29 1 



Ans. 9 1 32 

That is, Im. 32s. past 9 o'clock in the evening. 



ROBLEMS. 299 

Ex. 2.— At what time will Denebola pass the meridian on 
'lie first of April ? 

Solution.— R. A. of Denebola is llh. 40' 32'' 

R. A. of Sun, April 1, 41 25 

Ans. 10 59 7 

That is, at 59 minutes, 7 seconds, past 10 in the evening. 

Ex. 3. — At what time on the first day of each month, from 
January to July, will Alcyone, or the Pleiades, pass the me- 
ridian ? 

Ex. 4. — At what time will the Dog Star, or Sirius, culmi- 
nate on the first day of January, February, and March ? 

Ex. 5. — How much earlier will Spica Virginis pass the 
meridian on the 4th of July, than on the 15th of May? — 
Ans. 3 hours, 25 minutes. 



PROBLEM VIL 

TO FIND WHAT STARS WILL BE ON OR NEAREST THE MERmiAN 
AT ANY GIVEN TIME. 

Rule. — Add the given hour to the Sun's right ascension, 
found in Table III., and the sum will be the right ascension 
of the meridian, or mid-heaven j and then find in Table II. 
A'hat star's right ascension corresponds with, or comes near- 
est to it, and that will be the star required. 

Example 1. — What star will be nearest the meridian at 
9 o'clock in the evening of the 1st of September? 

Solution. — Sun's right ascension 1st September, 

lOh 40' 30" 

Add the time from noon 9 



Right ascension of the meridian 19h 40' 30" 

Now all the stars in the heavens which have this right as- 
cension, will be on the meridian at that time: On looking 
into Table II. the right ascension of Altair, in the Eagle, 
will be found to be 19h. 40m. ; consequently Altair is on 
the meridian at the time proposed ; and Delta, in the Swan, 
is less than two minutes past the meridian. 

Ex. 2. — Walking out in a bright evening on the 4th of Sep 
tember, I saw a very brilliant star almost directly over 
head; I looked on my watch, audit wanted 20 minutes of 
8 ; required the nam i of the star ? 

Solution. — Sun's declination 4th of September, 

lOh 53' 22" 

Add the time from noon 7 40 

Gives R. A. of Lyra, nearly 



IS 31 22 



300 PROBLEMS. 

Ex. 3. — About 8|- minutes after 8 in the evening of the 
11th of February, I observed a bright star on the meridian, 
a little north of the equinoctial, and 1 minute before 9 a still 
brighter one, further south; required the names of the stars? 

PROBLEM VIIL 

TO FIND WHAT STARS WILL CULMINATE AT 9 o'CLOCK IN THfi 
EVENING OF ANY DAY IN THE YEAR. 

Rule. — Against the day of the month in Table IV., find 
the right ascension of the mid-heaven, and all those stars in 
Table II. which have the same, or nearly the same right as- 
cension, will culminate at 9 P. M. of the given day. 

Example 1, — What star will culminate at 9 in the even- 
ing of the 26th of March? 

Solution. — I find the right ascension of the meridian, at 9 
o'clock in the evening of the 26th of March, is 9h 19' 37''; 
and on looking into Table II., I find the right ascension of 
Alphard, in the heart of Hydra, is 9h 19' 23''. The star is 
Alphard. 

Ex. 2. — What star will culminate at 9 in the evening of 
the 28th of June ? Ans. Aphacca. 

problem IX. 

ra FIND THE sun's LONGITUDE OR PLACE IN THE ECLIPtIc, ON 
ANY GIVEN DAY. 

Rule. — On the lower scale, at the bottom of the Plan- 
isphere, (Plate VIII.) look for the given day of the month, 
then the sign and degree corresponding to it on the scale 
immediately above it, will show the Sun's place in the 
ecliptic. 

Example 1. — Required the Sun's longitude, or place in 
the ecliptic, the 16th of September. 

Solution. — Over the given day of the month, September 
16th, stands 5 signs and 23 degrees, nearly, which is the 
Sun's place in the ecliptic at noon on that day ; that is, the 
Sun is about 23 degrees in the sign V.rgo. 

N. B. If the 5 signs be multiplied by 30, and the 13 degrees be added to it, 
twill give the longitude in degrees, 173. 

Ex. 2. — Required the Sun's place in the ecliptic at nooDf 
on the 10th of March. 



PROBLEMS. 



301 



PROBLEM X. 

GIVEN THE sun's LONGITUDE, OR PLACE IN THE ECI IPTIO, TO 

FIND HIS RIGHT ASCENSION AND DECLINATION. 

Rule.— Find the Sun's place in the ecliptic, (the curveil 
line which runs through the body of the planisphere,) and 
with a pair of compasses take the nearest distance between 
it and the nearest meridian, or hour circle, which being ap 
plied to the y^-^auated scales at the top or bottom of the 
planisphef, (measuring from the same hour circle,) will 
show the Sun's right ascension. Then take the shortest 
distance between the Sun's place in the ecliptic and the 
nearest part of the equinoctial, and apply it to either the 
east or west marginal scales, and it will give the Sun's de- 
clination. 

Example 1. — The Sun's longitude, September 16th, 1833, 
is 5 signs. 23 degrees, nearly ; required his right ascension, 
and declination. 

Solutioji. — The distance between the Sun's place in the 
ecliptic and the nearest hour circle being taken in the com- 
passes, and applied to either the top or bottom graduated 
scales, shows the right ascension to be about 11 hours 35 
minutes ; and the distance between the Sun's place in the 
ecliptic, and the nearest part of the equinoctial, being applied 
to either the east or west marginal scales, shows the decli- 
nation to be about 2° 45', which is to be called north, because 
the Sun is to the northward of the equinoctial : hence the 
Sun's right ascension, on the given day, at noon, is about 11 
hours 35 minutes, and his declination 2° 45' N. 

Ex. 2.— -The Sun's longitude March 10th, 1833, is 11 
signs. 19 degrees, nearly ; required his right ascension and 
declination ? 

Ans. R. A. 23 h. 21 min. Decl. 4° 11' nearly. 

PROBLEM XL 

TO FIND THE RIGHT ASCENSION OF THE MERIDIAN AT ANY 
GIVEN TIME. 

Rule.— Find the Sun's place in the ecliptic by Problem IX. 
and his right ascension by Problem X., to the eastward of 
which, count off the given time from noon, and it will show 
the right ascension of the meridian, or mid-heaven. 

Example 1. — Required the right ascension of the meridi- 
an 9 hours 25 minutes past noon, September 16th, 1S33. 

Solution. — By Problems IX. and X., the Sun's right agcea- 
26 



302 PROBLEMS. 

sion at noon of the given day, is 11 hours 35 minutes; to 
the eastward of which, 9 hours and 25 minutes (the ijnen 
time) being counted off, shows the right ascension of the 
meridian to be about 21 hours. 

Ex. 2. — Required the ris^ht ascension of the meridian ai 
6 hours past noon, March fOih, 1S33 ? 

Solution. — By Problems IX. and X. the Sun's right ascen- 
sion at noon of the given aay, ■« 23 hours and 21 minutes; 
to the eastward of which, the given time, 6 hours being 
counted off, shows the right ascension of the meridian to 
be abour 5 hours 21 minuies. 

Remark. — In this example, it may be necessary to observe, that whore 
the eastern, or left hand extremity ol" tlie planisphere leaves off, the west- 
ern, or right hand extremity, beffins ; therefore, in conntinir off the given 
time on the top or bottom graduated scales, the reckoning is to be trans- 
ferred from the left, and completed on the right, as If the two outside edges 
of the planisphere were joined together. 

PROBLEM XIL 

TO FIND WHAT STARS WILL BE ON OR NEAR THE MERIDIAN AT 
ANY GIVEN TIME. 

Rule. — Find the right ascension of the meridian by 
Problem XI. over which lay a ruler, and draw a pencil line 
along its edge from the top to the bottom of the planisphere, 
and it will show all the stars that are on or near the meridian. 

Example 1. — Required what stars will be on or near the 
meridian at 9 hours 25 minutes past noon, Sept. 16th, 1S33? 

Solution. — The right ascension of the m'eridian by Prob- 
lei/i XI. is 21 hours : this hour circle, or the line which passes 
up and down through the planisphere, shows that no star 
will be directly on the meridian at the given time ; but that 
Alderamin will be a little to the east, and Deneb Cygni, 
a little to the west of it; also Zeta Cygni, and Gamma and 
Alpha in the Little Horse, very near it on the east. 

PROBLEM XIII. 

TO FIND THE EARTh's MEAN DISTANCE FROM THE SUN. 

Rule. — As the Sun's horizontal parallax is to radius, so 
i& the semi-diameter of the Earth to its distance from tht 
Sun. 

By Logarithms. — As tangent of the Sun's horizontal par- 
allax is to radius, so is the Earth's semi-diameter to hei 
mean distance from the Sun. 

8".57r6: 206-,«»4".8 : : 3962: 95,273,869 miles 



PROBLEMS. 303 

By Logarithms. 
As tangent of Sun'g horizontal parallax, 8".5776 •= 5.61^^407 
Is to radius, or 90°, =- lO.lXXXHJOO 

So is the Earth's semi-diameter, 3962. = 3.5979145 

To the Earth's distance, 95,273,869 -= 7.9789738 

PROBLEM XIV. 

ro FIND THE DISTANCE OF ANY PLANET FROM THE SUN, THAT 
OF THE EARTH BEING KNOWN. 

Rule. — Divide the square of the planet's sidereal revolu- 
tion round the Sun, by the square of the Earth's sidereal re- 
volution, and multiply the cube root of the quotient by the 
Earth's mean distance from the Sun. 

By Logarithms. — From twice the logarithm of the plan- 
et's sidereal revolution, substract twice the logarithm of the 
Earth's sidereal revolution, and to one third of the remain- 
der, add the logarithm of the Earth's mean distance from 
the Sun. 

Example.— Required Mercury's mean distance from the Sun, that of the 
Earth being 95,273,869 miles. 

Mercury's sidereal revolution is 87.969253 days, or 7600&43''.8912 : The 
Earth's sidereal revolution is 365.256374417 days, or 

3155S151".5 7600543 .9 

31558151".5 7600543.9 



99 v3 1696-2096952 .25 by which divide 57763267575327 .21 
and the quurient will i)e .05aX)510671o292, the cube root of which in 0.3870977, 
and this muUiiilied by 94,881,891, gw^s 36,727,607 miles, for Mercury's distance 
from the :?un. This problem may be performed by logarithms is as many 
m-inyti:s'A& the former method requires hours. 

Mercury's Sid. Rev. 760U543".9 log. -= 6.8S08417X2 13.7616594 

Earth's' Sid. Rev. 31558151"'. log. - 7.4991302X2 14.9982604 

i)— 2.7634290 

1.5S7S097 
Add. log. of the Earth's mean distance, 7.9789733 



Mercury'.s distance, 36,88042^. Ans. 7.5667835 

If I tie pupil have not already learned the use of logarithms, this problem 
will sytisfy him of their unspeakable advantage over all other modes of com- 
putation. By reviewing the above calculation", he will perceive that instead of 
multiplying 31.558151' .5 by itself, he need only multiply its logarithms by tico ! 
and, instead of extracting the cube root of 0.058CK)5 1057 13292, he need only 
divide its logarithm by three ! and, instead of multiplying 0.3870977, by 95,273, 
869, he need only add their logarithms together. He need not think himself a 
d'i^U «.cholar, if by tae former method he come to the true result in Jive 
kouTi , nor remarkably quick, if by the latter he come to it in five ininuies. 

PROBLEM XV. 
TO FIND THE HOURLY MOTION OF A PLANET IN ITS ORBIT. 

Rule. — Multiply the planet's mean distance from the 
Sun by 6,2831853, and divide the product by the time oi 
iie planet's sidereal revolution, expressed in hours, and th* 
ecimals of an hour. 



304 PROBLEMS. 

By Logarithms.— Add 0,7981799 lo the logarithm of the 
planet's mean distance ^rom the Sun, and from the sum 
substract the logarithm of the planet's revolution expressed 
in hours. 

Example.— Required the Earth's hourly motion in itsorbiL 
Los. of Earth's distance = 7.9789738-i-0.7981799 - 8.7771537 

Substract lo?. of Earth's revolution 3.9428090 

Gives Earth'"} horary motion, 08,288 miles, — 4.8343M7 

PROBLEM XVL « 

TO FIND THE HOURLY MOTION OF A PLANET ON ITS AXIS. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the given planet by 
3.14159, and divide the product by the period of its diurna' 
rotation. 

By Logarithms. — Add 4.0534524 to the logarithm of the 
planet's diameier, and from the sum substract the logarithm 
of its diurnal rotation, expressed in seconds. 

Earth's diameter, 792i log. = 3.89S9445 

Add log. of 3600"-|-log. of 3.14159 =- 4.05345-24 

7.9523969 
Substract log. diurnal rotation, 23 h. 56 4" .09 - 4.9353263 



Ans. 1040.09 miles - 3.0170706 

PROBLEM XVn. 
TO FIND THE RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE PLANETS. 

Rule. — Divide the cube of the diameter of the larger 

planet, by the cube of the diameter of the less. 

By Logarithms. — From three times the logarithm of the 

larger, substract three times the logarithm of the less. 
Example.— How much does the size of the Earth exceed that of the 

Moon ? 

Earth's diameter, 7912 log. 3.S982863X3 = 1 1.6948589 

Moon's diameter. 2160 log. 3.3:^43376X3 = 10 00.30128 

The Earth exceeds the Moon, 49.1865 times. Ans. 1.6918461 

In this exaiople. 7912 miles is assumed as the mean between the Earth'* 

equatorial and polar diameter: the former being 7924, and the latter 7896 

miles 

PROBLEM XVIIL 

TO FIND THE PROPORTION OF SOLAR LIGHT AND HEAT AT EACH 

OF THE PLANETS. 

Rule. — Divide the square of the planet's greater distance 
from the Sun, by the square of the less. — Or, substract twice 
the logarithm of the greater distanf'e, from twice the loga- 
rithm of the 'ess. 



PROBLEMS. 



303 



Example. — How much greater is the Sun's lignt and 
eat at Mercury, than at the Earth '? 

Log. of Earth's distance 7.9789733x2 =■ .5.9599476 

— of Mercury's 7.5667959X2=15 1335918 

Ans. 6.6736 times greater— 0.8243558 

PROBLEM XIX. 
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE PLANETS. 

RrLE. — Multiply the diameter of the planet by 3.14159 
)r, add the logarithm of the planet's diameter to 0.4971 iM 

PROBLEM XX. 
TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE PLANETARY ORBITS. 

Rule. — Multiply the planet's mean distance from th« 
Sun, by 6.2831853 : or, to the logarithm of the planet's 
mean distance, add 0.7981799, and the sum will be the lo- 
garithm of the answer. 



PROBLEM XXL 

TO FIND IN WHAT TIME ANY OP THE PLANETS WOULD FALL Ti 
THE SUN IF LEFT TO THE FORCE OF GRAVITATION ALONE. 

Rule. — Multiply the time of the planet's sidereal revolu- 
tion, by 0.176776 J the result will be the answer. 

By Logarithms. — From the logarithm of the planet's si' 
dereal revolution, substract 0.7525750, and the remainder 
will be the logarithm of the answer, in the same denomina- 
tion as the sidereal revolution. 

RfDquired the times, x-espectively, in which the several planets would fall 
to the Sun by the force of gravity. 



Planets would fall to 


Days. B 


M. 


S. 


Logarithms. 


the Sun 












Mercury, 




15 13 


13 


16 


6.12826S6 


Venus, 




39 17 


19 


22 


6..535&424 


Earth, 




64 13 


[■iH 


55 


6.7465357 


Mars, 




121 10 


36 


3 


7.0208817 


Jupiter, 




765 21 


33 


35 


7.8206819 


Samrn. 




1901 23 


24 


4 


8.2157186 


Herscliel, 




542-1 16 


52 


1 


8.6708897 


Mcion to the 


Earth, 


4 19 


54 


57 


5.6204459 



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Mercury, 
Venus, . 
Earth, . 
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Saturn, . 
llerschel, 



TABLE I. 

Contuning the names of the Constellations, the number andmc5:nitud8l 
of t:ae Stars in each, and the days on which they come to the mend- r 
ian »i 9 o'clock in the evenng. 





Month. 




Constellations. 


R.A. 


Decli 
nation 


No. of 
Stars. 


Magnitudes. 


1 










1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


1 


Jan 


4 


Eridanus, 


62° 


10° S 


84 


1 


1 


11 


27 


20 


57 


2 




6 


Reticulus, 


62 


62 S 


10 










3 


2 


5 


3 




9 


Taurus, 


65 


16 N 


141 


1 


1 


4 


8 


23 


60 


4 




1] 


Brandenburgh S6^pt^e, 


67 


15 S 


3 














5 




12 


Praxiteles, 


68 


40 S 


16 














4 


18 


6 




12 


Camelopard, 


68 


70 N 


58 











6 


25 


42 


7 




18 


Auriga, 


75 


45 N. 


66 


1 


1 





9 


20 


26 


8 




18 


Sword Fish, 


75 


62 S. 


6 








1 


1 


4 


24 


9 




19 


Mens Mensae, 


76 


72 S. 


30 

















30 


10 




23 


tepus, the Hare, 


80 


18 S. 


19 








3 


7 


3 


13 


11 




23 


Orion, 


80 





78 


2 


4 


3 


15 


18 


36 


12 




26 


Painter's Horse, 


84 


55 S. 


8 











1 





39 


13 




27 


Noah's Dove, 


85 


35 S. 


10 





1 


1 


2 


4 


53 


14 


Feb. 


10 


Canis Major, 


105 


20 S. 


31 


1 


4 




7 


7 


36 


15 




22 


Monoceros, 


110 





31 











7 


7 


12 


16 




23 


Gemini, 


111 


32 N. 


85 


1 


2 


4 


7 


13 


27 


17 




23 


The Lynx, 


111 


50 N. 


44 











3 


15 


25 


18 




27 


Argo Navis, 


115 


50 S. 


64 




4 


9 


12 


37 


289 


19 


March. 


4 


Canis Minor, 


120 


5 N. 


14 


1 





1 





3 


9 


20 




12 


Flying Fish, 


127 


68 S. 


8 














6 


8 


21 




13 


Cancer, 


128 


20 N. 


83 











3 


8 


11 


22 




15 


Mariner's Compass, 


130 


30 S. 


4 














2 


13 


23 




25 


Hydra, 


139 


8 S. 


60 





1 





13 


16 


45 


24 


April. 


1 


Sextans, 


145 





41 











[ 


6 


36 


25 




6 


Leo Minor, 


150 


35 N. 


53 








1 


5 


10 


39 


26 




6 


Leo Major, 


150 


15 N. 


95 


2 


2 


6 


15 


12 


47 


27 




6 


Air Pump, 


150 


32 S. 


3 














2 


18 


28 




9 


Ursa Major, 
Robur Carroll, 


153 


60 N. 


87 


1 


3 


7 


13 


31 


37 


29 




16 


159 


50 S. 


12 














33 




26 


Crater, the Cup, 


168 


15 S. 


31 











10 


9 


14 


34 


May, 


3 


Chameleon, 


175 


78 S. 


10 














6 


35 


35 




11 


The Cross, 


183 


50 S. 


5 


1 


2 


1 


1 


1 


12 


36 




13 


Coma Berenices, 


185 


26 N. 


43 











13 


13 


17 


37 




13 


Corpus, the Crow, 


185 


15 S. 


9 








3 


2 


2 


2 


38 




13 


Southern Fly, 


185 


68 S. 


5 











4 





17 


39 




19 Cor Caroli, ' ' 


191 


39 N. 


3 














40 




23 


Virgo, 


195 


5 N. 


110 


1 





6 


10 


16 


71 


41 




28 


Asterion et Chara, 


200 


40 N. 


25 








1 


1 


7 


15 






28 


Centaurus, 


200 


50 S. 


35 


2 


1 


6 


10 


14 


100 


42 


June. 


9 


Bootes, 


212 


20 N. 


54 


1 





7 


10 


18 


30 


43 




19 


Compasses, 


222 


64 S. 


4 





e ol 


1 


1 


8 


44 




21 


Mons Maenalus, 


225 


5 N. 


11 














45 




22 


libra, 


226 


8 S. 


51 





1 


3 


12 


4 


27 


46 




26 


lupus, the Wol^ 


230 


45 S. 


24 








3 


3 


18 


29 


47 


July. 


1 


Carona Borealia, 


235 


30 N. 


21 





1 


\ 


5 


9 


5 


48 




1 


Crsa Minor, 


235 


75 N. 


24 





1 


2 


4 


6 


4 



TABLE I.— Continued. 



X3 

e 


Month 




Constellations. 


R.A. 


Decli- 


No. of 


Magnitudes. 


p 

K 




1 












1 


2 

! 1 


3 
9 


4 
5 


-ii 


49 


July. 


1 


The Serpent, 


23.5° !l0O is^ 


64 





3A(, 


50 




4 


S. Triangle, 


238 


65 


S. 


5 





1 


2 





1 16 


51 




8 


Euclid's Square, 


242 


45 


S. 


12 














3 26 


52 




10 


Scorpio, 


244 


26 


s. 


44 


1 


1 


11 


10 


429 


53 




18 


Bird of Paradise, 


252 


75 


s. 


11 














2 16 


54 




21 


Ara, the Altar, 


255 


55 


s. 


9 








3 


3 


i;3o 


55 




21 


Hercules, 


255 


22 


N. 


113 





1 


8; 19 


36 46 


56 


26 


Serpcntarius. 


260 13 


N. 


74 





1 


5! 10 


942 


57 


August 


3 


Draco, 


270 66 


N. 


80 





4 




12 


25 32 


58 




6 


Cerbei-us, 


271 22 


N. 














59 




10 


Scutum Sobieski, 


275 10 


S. 














60 




10 


Taurus Poniatowski, 


275 7 


N. 


16 











3 


lll2 


61 




13 


Corona Australis, 


278 40 


S. 


12 








01 


5 10 


62 




13 


Telescopium, 


278 140 


s. 


9 








o; 3 


630 


63 




19 


Lyra, the Harp, 


2S3 i33 


N. 


21 


1 





o| 2 


6 12 


64 




21 


Sagittarius, 


285 


35 


S. 


69 








5 10 


12 59 


65 




29 


Antinous, 


292 















i 


66 


Sept. 


1 


Sagitta, 


295 


18 


N. 


13 








O' 4 


0'l5 


67 




1 


A(iuila, 


295 


8 


N. 


71 


1 





9l 7 


14:i8 


6S 




6 


Fox and Goose, 


300 :25 


N. 


35 








0; 5 


13 21 


69 




9 


The Peacock, 


302 i68 


S. 


14 





1 


2 3 


4 80 


70 




15 


Delphinus, 


308 !l5 


N. 


13 








51 1 


211 


71 




18 


Cygnus, 


303 ;42 


N. 


81 





1 


6111 


16.49 


72 




IS-Capricorn, 


310 |20 


S. 


51 








3l 3 


7j 4 


73 




18|Hadley's Quadratv- 


310 '80 


S. 


43 








1' 


6'64 


74 




23 


Microscopiuui, 


315 135 


s. 


10 








0| 


i:i2 


75 




23 


The Indian, 


315 55 


s. 


12 








1 1 


2M 


76 




24 


Equulus, 


316 


5 


N. 


10 








4 


It 5 


77 


Oct. 


10 


The Crane, 


330 


45 


s. 


13 





1 


2 


2 


6k' 


78 




15 


Aquarius, 


335 


14 


s. 


108 








4 


7 


28 59 


79 




15 


Southern Fish 


335 


30 


s. 


24 


1 





2 


5 


9 19 


80 




16 


The Lizard, 


336 


43 


N. 


16 











3 


7 7 


SI 




18 


Cepheus, 


3:38 65 


N 














82 




20 


Pegasus, 


340 il4 


N. 


89 





3 


3 


9 


14 5) 


&3 


Nov. 


9 


American Goose, 


359 :66 


S. 


9 








1 


2 


5j58 


Si 




13 


Officina Sculptori^. 


3 138 


S. 


12 














529 


S5 




15 


Pisces, 


5 


10 


N. 


113 








13 5 


28 63 


86 




20 


Piicenix, 


10 


50 


s. 


13 







i; 3 


7;63 


87 




22 


Cassiopeia, 


12 


60 


N. 


55 








5; 6 


8,38 


6S 




23 


Andromeda, 


14 


34 


N 


66 





3 


212 


15 


34 


89 


Dec. 


4 


Cetus, 


25 


12 


s. 


97 





2 


7,13 


11 


66 


90 




6 


Triangulum, 


27 


32 


N. 


16 








3 


1 


7 


91 




6 


Jlydrus, 


28 


68 


s. 


10 








2 3 


2 


38 


92 






Aries, 


30 |22 


N. 


66 





1 


1 


2 


6 


22 


a-^ 




10 


Triangulum Min. 


32 123 


N. 


5 














94 




17 


Horologiuin, 


40 60 


S. 


12 











Q 


2 


39 


95 




17 


Musca, 


40 


27 


N. 


4 








1 


2 


I 




d6 




19 


Chemical Furnace, 


42 


30 


s. 


14 














2 


43 


97 




21 


Caput Medusae, 


A 


40 


N. 
















98 




23 


Perseus, 


£ 


49 


N. 


59 





2 


4 


10 


14 


31 



TABLE II. 

Exhibiting- the Right Ascension and Declination of the prmcipal | 

Fixed Stars, and the time of their coming to the Meridian. 

Those to which S is aiinexed are in South decUnation ; the others are in North | 

declination. 



i 


Names of the Stars. 




Right 
Ascension. 


Declination. 


On the 
Merid. 


cz 

Q 
1 


1 


t Persei, 


3 


H. 

3 


M. 

47 


s. 
8 



39 


31 


37 


Jan. 


2'^ Eridani, 


3 


3 


50 


15 


13 


59 


4S. 




2 


3jo Eridani, 


3 
3 


4 


3 


31 


7 


16 


32S. 




5 


4' 6 Tauri, 


4 


18 


52 


18 


8 


18 




8 


5! St Tauri, Aldebaran, 


1 


4 


26 


21 


16 


10 


4 




10 


6|^ Endani, 


3 


4 


39 


35 


5 


18 


OS. 




13 


7|it Aurigae, Capella, 


1 


5 


4 


22 


45 


49 


10 




19 


8i^ Orionis, Rigel, 


1 


5 


6 


31 


8 


23 


55S. 




20 


9 


yg Tauri, El Nath, 


2 


5 


15 


44 


28 


27 


39 




22 


10 


n Orionis, 


3 


5 


15 


36 


2 


33 


17S. 




22 


11 


y Orionis, Bellatrix, 


2 


5 


16 


11 


6 


11 


32 




22 


121 i/S Leporis, Nibal, 


3 


5 


21 


22 


20 


53 


46S. 




23 


13j/ Orionis, Mintaka, 


2 


5 


23 


29 





25 


398. 




24 


14|a. Leporis, Arneb, 


3 


5 


25 


33 


17 


56 


50S. 




24 


15' « Orionis, Aniiam, 

16|^ Tauri, 

Hj,^ Orionis, Alnitak, 


2 


5 


27 


44 


1 


18 


49S. 




25 


3 


5 


27 


53 


21 


2 






25 


2 


5 


32 


20 


2 


2 


9S. 




26 


ISU Columbffi, Phaet, 


2 


5 


33 


9 


34 


10 


2S. 




26 


19!;t Orionis, Saiph, 


3 


5 


39 


29 


9 


44 


2S. 




27 


20,^ Columbae, 


3 


5 


45 


6 


35 


50 


12s. 




29 


21'* Orionis. Betelguese 


1 


5 


46 


8 


7 


22 


6 




29 


22 
23 


;?/3Aurig3e,Menkalina 


2 


5 


47 


17 


44 


55 


24 




29 


:.' ••reminorum, Tejat, 


34 


6 


4 


54 


2^ 


23 


1 


Fot. 


"3 


24 .^- vjciiiinorum, 


3 


6 


12 


54 


22 


35 


48 




4 


25 <f Canis Majoris, 


3 


6 


14 


4 


29 


59 


36S. 




5 


2G0 Ca. Maj., Mirzam, 


2 


6 


15 


23 


17 


52 


41S. 




5 


27, =i Navis, Canopus, 


1 


6 


20 


15 


52 


36 


23S. 




6 


28 / Gemino., Alhena, 


3 


6 


28 


4 


16 


32 


18 




8 


29 =< Canis Maj., Sirius, 


1 


6 


37 


47 


16 


29 


27S. 




11 


30 6 Canis Maj. ,Adhara, 


3 


6 


53 


14 


28 


44 


55S. 




15 


31 i^" Geminorum, 


3 


6 


53 


53 


20 


48 


36 




15 


32> C. Maj., Muliphen, 


3 


6 


56 


26 


15 


23 


20S. 




lb 


33!'^ C. Majoris, Wesen, 


2 


7 


1 


17 


26 




53S 




17 


34 «^ Gemino., Wasat, 


3 


7 


10 


8 


22 


17 


6 




19 


35i7r Argo Navis, 


3 


7 


11 


7 


36 


48 


7S. 




19 


36 « C. Maj., Aludra, 


2 


7 


17 


16 


28 


58 


508. 




21 


37'^ Gemino., Castor, 


2 


7 


23 


56 


32 


14 


52 




23 


SR:* C. Mmor,Procyon, 


1 


7 


30 


33 


5 


38 


55 




24 


39;' Ar.Navis,Markab, 


3 


7 


32 


17 


26 


26 


228. 




25 


40 


/i Gemino., Pollux, 


2 


7 


35 


5 


28 


25 


28 




26 



TABLE II.— Continued. 



7 

25 


Names of the Stars. 




AsS'ou.'^-"-'-- 


On the 
Me rid. 


Q 








H. 


M. 


s. ° 




1 


4i 


1 Argo Navis, 


3 


7 


42 


20 24 


26 35S. 


Feb. 


28 
4 


5 


^ Argo Navis, Naos. 


~2 


7 


57 


44 39 


32 3S. 


Mar. 


43 


^ Argo Navis, 


2 


8 


4 


23 46 


50 43S. 


^ 


44 


« Argo Navis, 


2.3 


8 


19 


5 58 


58 33S. 


^ 


45 


cT Argo Navis, 


2.3 


8 


40 


7 54 


5 43S 


:i5 


46 


; Ursae Majoris, 


3 


8 


47 


47 48 


41 50 




17 


47 


at Cancri, Acubens, 


3.4 


8 


49 


45 12 


30 9 




18 


48 


\ Argo Navis, 


2.3 


9 


1 


51 42 


45 40S. 




21 


49'^ A. N.,Maia Placid. 


1 


9 


12 


57 69 


1 54S 




24 


50' ;c Argo Navis, 


2.3 


9 


16 


59 54 


17 53S 


|25 


51 A Hydras, Alphard, 


2 


9 


19 


23 i 7 


56 14S. 


126 


52 6 Ursae Majoris, 


3 


9 


21 


47 53 


26 45 


127 


53 
54 


£ Leonis, 


3 


9 


36 


22 24 


32 26 




31 


/< Leonis, Rasal Asad. 


~3 


9 


42 


56 26 


47 32 


April. 


~1 


bo'n Leonis, 


3.4 


9 


58 


13 17 


34 34 




6 


5G\ct Leonis Recfulus, 




9 


59 


28 12 


46 52 




6 


57JA Ursse Majoris, 


3 


10 


6 


58 43 


44 49 




8 


58'^ Leonis, Aldhafara, 


3 


10 


7 


23 24 


14 53 




8 


59jv Leonis, Al Gieba, 


2.3 


10 


10 


45 20 


41 16 




9 


60^. U. M., El Phekrah, 


8 


10 


11 


55 42 


20 15 




9 


6lU Leonis Minoris, 


3 


10 


28 


47 32 


50 39 




14 


62 6 Arsro Navis, 


2.3 


10 


37 


12 ,63 


31 14S. 




16 


63 » At go Navis, 


2 


10 


38 


36 58 


48 34S. 




17 


54 at Crateris, Alkes, 


3.4 


10 


51 


35 '17 


24 36S. 




20 


35 ^ Ursae Maj., Merak, 


2 


10 


51 


42 157 


16 35 




20 


56 U Ursae Maj., Dubhe, 


2 


10 


53 


21 |62 


39 3 




21 


37 [cT Leonis, Zozma, 


3 


11 


5 


13 ,21 


27 32 




24 


58,3 Leonis, 


3 


11 


5 


39 


16 


20 39 




24 


59 


A, Draconis, Giansar, 


3 


11 


20 


17 


70 


15 3 


V <• *, 


28 


ro 


/2 Leonis, Denebola, 


2 


11 


40 


32 


15~ 


30 22 


1 


n 


/2 Virginis, Zavijava, 


3 


11 


42 





2 


42 43 




3 


12 


y U. Maj., Phach'd, 


2 


11 


45 


1 


M 


37 25 




4 


r3<r Centauri, 


2.3 


11 


59 


44 


49 


30 15S. 




8 


r4<r Crucis, 


3 


12 


6 


21 


57 


32 4S. 




10 


r5 


/ Ursse M., Megrez., 


3 


12 


7 


7 


57 


58 46 




10 


'6 


y Corvi, 


3 


12 


7 


38 


16 


36 42S. 




10 


n 


^ Crucis, 


1 


12 


17 


23 


62 


10 26S. 




13 


"8 ^ Corvi, Algorab, 


3 


12 


21 


38 


15 


34 49S. 




14 


9? Crucis, 


2 


12 


21 


56 


56 


10 22S. 


\ 


M 





/6 Corvi, 1 


3 


12 


25 


39 


22 


28 9S. 




X5 



TABLE II.— Continued. 



i 


Names of the Stars. 




Right 
Ascension. 


Declination. 


On the 
Merid. 


G 


81 


V Draconis, 


3 


H. 

12 


M. 

26 


B 

23 


70 


42 


38 


May. 


15 


82 1^ Centauri,' 


2.3 


12 


32 


23 


48 


2 


23S. 




16 


83 !> Virginis, 


3 


12 


33 


37 





31 


55S. 




17 


84'/2 Crucis, 


2 


13 


38 


3 


58 


46 


27S. 




18 


85 t Ur, MajoriSjAlioth, 


2 


12 


46 


27 


57 


52 


5 




20 


8G|(f Virginis, 


3 


12 


47 


12 


4 


18 


31 




20 


87U Cor-Caroli, 


3 


12 


47 


57 


39 


13 


21 




20 


^8jg Vir., Vindemiatrix, 


3 


12 


56 


36 


11 


51 


32 




22 


89> Hydrae, 


3 


13 


9 


42 


22 


17 


9S. 




26 


90^ Centauri, 


3 


13 


10 


48 


35 


49 


49S. 




26 


91i^ Virginis, Spica, 


1 


13 


16 


24 


10 


17 


lOS. 




27 


92'^ UrsEe Maj., Mizar, 


2 


13 


17 


11 


55 


17 


59 




28 


93 


^ Virginis, 


3 


13 


25 


36 





15 


43 




30 


94 


« Centauri, 


2.3 


13 


29 


20 


52 


32 


20S. 




31 


% 


» U. M., Benetnasch, 


~2 


13~ 


40 


57 


50" 


8 


58 


June. 


2 


Qii 


^ Centauri, 


3 


13 


45 


11 


46 


27 


37S. 




3 


97 


» Bcotis, 


3 


13 


46 


32 


19 


14 


39 




4 


98 


/S Centauri, 


1.2 


13 


52 


8 


59 


33 


36S. 




5 


99 


^ Draconis, Thuban, 


3 


13 


59 


52 


65 


10 


31 




7 


100 


* Bootis, Arcturus, 


1 


14 


8 


3 


20 


3 


21 




8 


101 


« Centauri, 


2.3 


14 


24 


54 


41 


25 


OS. 




13 


102 


y Bootis, Seginus, 


3 


14 


25 


17 


39 


2 


32 




13 


103 


* Centauri, 


1.2 


14 


28 


58 


60 


9 


28S. 




14 


104 


* Lupi, 


3 


14 


30 


46 


46 


39 


47S. 




14 


105 


* Bootis, Mirac, 


3 


14 


37 


41 


27 


47 


2 




16 


lot; 


=^ Libi-£e, Zubenesch, 


2.3 


14 


41 


27 


15 


20 


29S. 




17 


107 


/S U. Mino., Kochah, 


3 


14 


51 


16 


74 


50 


17 




19 


lOS 


/2 Bootis, Nekkar, 


3 


14 


55 


12 


41 


3 


18 




20 


10<J 


^ Libree, Zubenelg, 


2.3 


15 


8 


2 


8 


45 


41S. 




23 


110 


J Serpentis, 

* C. Bor., Alphacca, 

< Serpentis, Unuk, 


3 


15 


26 


32 


11 


6 


14 




28 


111 


2 


15 


27 


37 


27 


16 


55 ■ 




28 


112 


2 


15 


36 


3 


6 


57 


24 




30 


rf3 


/3 Serpentis, 


~3 


15~ 


38 


'29" 


16" 


57 


7 


July. 


1 


114 


« Serpentis, 


3 


15 


42 


36 


6 


59 


7 




2 


115 


y Serpentis, 


3 


15 


48 


26 


16 


12 


59 




3 


116,7r Scorpii, 


3 


15 


48 


4 


25 


37 


lis. 




3 


117 Scorpii, 


3 


15 


50 


28 


22 


8 


18S. 




4 


118/2 Scorpii, 


2 


15 


55 


44 


19 


20 


28S. 




5 


119 


6 Draconis, 


3 


15 


58 


37 


59 





32 




fi 



TABLE II.— Continued 



6 


Names of the Stars. 


CJ3 


Right 
Ascension. 


Declination. 


On the 
Mend. 








H. 


M. 


g 


o 


, 


" 






120/ Ophiu.,Yed,orJed. 


p 


16 


5 


36 


3 


15 


18S. 


July. 


7 


121 » Ophiuchi, 


3 


16 


9 


39 


4 


16 


37S.' 


8 


122 y Hercules, 


3 


16 


14 


23 


19 


33 


1 




9 


123 A Scorpii, Antares, 


1 


16 


19 


10 


26 


3 


7S. 




11 


124: '^ Draconis, 


3 


16 


2-1 


12 


61 


53 


38 




11 


125 /S Hercules,Rutilicus, 


3! 16 


23 


22 


21 


57 


36 




12 


126 f Ophiuchi, 


3! 16 


27 


45 


10 


13 


15S. 




13 


127 A Triang. Australis, 


2.3 16 


31 


3 


68 


42 


23S. 




14 


128 f Herculis, 


316 


34 


59 


31 


54 


39 




15 


129 £ Scorpii, 


3il6 


39 


4 


33 


58 


40S. 




16 


130 ^ I Scorpii, 


3,16 


40 


8 


37 


45 


14S. 




16 


131 > Scorpii, 

132 6 Herculis, 


316 


42 


52 


41 


3 


33S. 




17 


3il6 


54 


14 


31 


10 


40 




19 


133 « Ophiuchi, 


2.31 17 





50 


15 


30 


35S. 




21 


134 .t Her., Ras Algeth-i, 


2.3|17 


7 


2 


14 


35 


17 




23 


135 tT Herculis, 


317 


8 


20 


25 


2 


43 




23 


136 ^ Draconis, 

137 ; Arse, 


3!l7 


8 


23 


65 


55 


12 




23 


317 


18 


57 


49 


43 


54S. 




24 


138^ Scorpii, Lesath, 
139 Q Scorpii, 


2.317 


22 


58 


36 


58 


24S. 




27 


317 


25 


20 


42 


52 


55S. 




27 


140 * Ophiu., Ras Alhag. 


217 


28 


11 


12 


41 


20 




23 


141/2 Ophiuchi, Cheleb, 


3:17 


35 


36 


4 


38 


40 




30 


142>- Ophiuchi, 


3|17 


39 


56 


o 


46 


42 




31 


143 > Draconis. Rastaben, 


Ts'rT 


52 


44 


sT 


30 


42 


Aug. 


1 


144 y 2 Sagiitarii, 


317 


55 


5 


30 


04 


40S. 




4 


145/ Sagittarii, 


3,18 


10 


1 


29 


53 


28S. 




8 


146* Sagittarii, 


2.3 1 18 


12 


48 


34 


27 


14S. 




8 


147 A Lyrse, Vega, 


lilS 


26 


11 


38 


38 







12 


148 / Ursa? Minoris, 


318 


28 


6 86 


35 


47 




12 


149/3 Lyrae, 


2.318 


43 


55 


33 


10 


33 




17 


150 <r Sagittarii, 


218 


44 


58 


26 


29 


428. 




17 


151 6 Serpentis, Alga, 


318 


47 


36 


3 


59 


20 




18 


152/ Lyrae, 


318 


49 


6 


36 


41 


28 




18 


153 f Sagittarii, 


318 


52 


1 


30 


6 


40S. 




19 


154 y Lyrae, Jugum., 


3|l8 


52 


11 


32 


27 


47 


1 


19 


155 • Aquilae, 


318 


52 


26 


14 


50 


4 


i 


19 


156 f A., Deneb e Okab, 


318 


57 


44 


13 


37 


20 


20 


157; «• Sagittarii, 


318 


59 


54 


21 


16 


56S. 


21 


158' A Sagittarii, 


3.419 


12 


19 


40 


55 


9S. 


124 


159i 


f Draconis, | 


319 


12 


29 


57 


21 


59 


1 


24 





TABLE II.- 


—Continued. 










1 


Names of the Stars. 


3 


Right 
Ascension. 


Declination. 


On the 
Merid. 


Q 


160 


<r Aquilae, 


H. 

19 


M. 

17 


5 


2 


46 


57 


Aug. 


26 


161 


b Vulpeculae, 


3.4 


19 


21 


20 


24 


20 


5 




27 


162 


/? Cygni, Albireo, 


3 


19 


24 


17 


27 


36 


51 




28 


163 


y Aquilae, Tarazed, 


3 


19 


38 


19 


10 


12 


48 




31 


164 


^ Cygni, 


~^ 


19 


40 





44 


43 


25 


Sept. 


~i 


165 


* Aquilae, Altair, 


1.2 


19 


42 


38 


8 


26 


2 




1 


166 


/2 Aquilse, Alshain, 


3 


19 


47 


7 


5 


59 


47 




3 


167 


6 Aquilse, 


3 


20 


2 


38 


1 


18 


39S. 




7 


168 


A 1 Capri., Dshabeh, 


3 


20 


8 


23 


13 


1 


59S. 




9 


169 


a. 2 Capricorni, 


3 


20 


■'8 


47 


13 


3 


16S. 




9 


170 


/3 Capricorni, Dabih, 


3 


20 


11 


48 


15 


18 


15S. 




10 


171 


ct Pavonis, 


1.2 


20 


12 


23 


57 


15 


42S. 




10 


172 


y Cygni, Sa'dr, 


3 


20 


16 


11 


39 


43 


32 




11 


173 


i Delphini, 


3 


20 


25 


32 


10 


44 


29 




13 


174 


/3 Delphini, Rotanen, 


3 


20 


29 


29 


13 


59 


53 




15 


175 


ct Delphini, Scalovin, 


3 


20 


31 


53 


15 


59 


32 




15 


176 


(T Delphini, 


3 


20 


35 


29 


14 


28 


53 




16 


177 


A Cygni, Deneb, 


1.2 


20 


35 


45 


44 


41 


15 




16 


178 


y Delphini, 


3 


20 


38 


29 


15 


31 


47 




17 


179 


t Cygni, Gienah, 


3 


20 


39 


16 


33 


20 


16 




17 


180 


^ Cygni, 


3 


21 


5 


22 


29 


32 


45 




25 


181 


A Cephei, Alderamin, 


3 


21 


14 


35 


61 


52 


45 




27 


182 


/2 Aquarii, 


3 


21 


22 


46 


6 


18 


9S. 




29 


183 


yg Cephei, Alphirk, 


~3 


2r 


26 


28 


69~ 


49 


43 


Oct. 


"i 


f^^ 


y Capricorni, 


3 


21 


30 


45 


17 


24 


48S. 




3 


185 


• Pegasi, Enif, 


2.3 


21 


35 


32 


9 


6 


47 




4 


186 


^ Capricorni, 


3 


21 


37 


49 


16 


52 


33S. 




9 


187 


A Aquarii, 


3 


21 


57 


12 


1 


7 


33S. 




9 


188 


* Gruis, 


2 


21 


57 


40 


47 


45 


38S. 




11 


189 


^ Cephei, 


3 


22 


5 


5 


57 


22 


59 




12 


190 


y Aquarii, 


3 


22 


12 


38 


2 


13 


40S. 




16 


191 


^ Piscis Australis, 


3 


22 


21 


50 


33 


11 


44S. 




18 


192 


• Piscis Australis, 


3 


22 


31 


49 


27 


54 


48S. 




19 


193 


{ Pegasi, 


3 


22 


33 


36 


9 


57 


49 




22 


194 


Aquarii, Scheat, 


3 


22 


45 


43 


26 


42 


31S. 




23 


195 


* Pise. Aust.,Fomalh. 


1 


^ 


48 


24 


30 


30 


18S. 




24 


196 


/8 Pegasi, Scheat, 


2 


22 


55 


32 


27 


10 


27 




25 


197 


a Pegasi, Markab, 


~~2 


23~ 


56 


"27^ 


iT 


18 


37 


Nov. 


"i 



27 



TABLE II.- Continued. 



i 


Names of the Stars. 




Ae?i?c'L ' Declination, 'on the 
Ascension. , ,j^^^^^_ 


Q 


~" 






H. 


M. 


g. 1 o 


, 


// 






198 


y Cephei, Er Rai, 


3 23 


32 


16 76 


41 


52 


Nov. 


10 


199 


"^ Andromedae, Alph., 


223 


59 


46 28 


10 


9 




10 


200 


^ Cassiopeiae, Chaph, 


3>4 





36 58 


13 


47 




11 


201 y Pegasi", Algenib," 


3j 


4 


39 14 


15 


22 




14 


202/2 Hydrus, 


3 


15 


56 78 


12 


7S. 




14 


203 ^ Pha?nicis, 


2.31 


18 


1 43 


12 


12S. 




17 


204 "^ Andromedae, 


3 





30 


36 29 


56 







17 


205 * Cassiop., Schedir, 

206 /2 Ceti, Deneb Kaitos, 


3 





31 


5 155 


37 


13 




18 


2 





35 


12 18 


54 


17S. 




21 


207 y Cassiopeia, 


3 





46 


41 59 


48 


41 




21 


208 * U. M. Alruccabah, 


2.3 







19 88 


25 


7 




24 


209 ^ Andro., Mirach, 


2 







45 34 


44 


10 




23 


210 cf Cassio., Ruchbah, 


~i 




14 


57 


59 


21 


54 


Dec. 


1 


211^1 Eradani, Achernar, 


1 




31 


21 


58 


12 


37S. 




4 


212 c Cassiopeiae, 


3 




42 


11 


62 


50 


42 




i 


213, f Ceti, Baton Kaitos, 


3 




43 


35 


11 


9 


36S. 




5 


214/2 Arietis, 


3 




45 


45 


20 


59 


30 




1 


215* Piscium,ElRischa 


3 




53 


38 


1 


57 


19 




1 


216 1> Andro., Almaach, 


2 




53 


54 


41 


31 


32 




g 


2171* Arietis, or El Nath 


2 




57 


47 


22 


40 


11 




11 


218 Ceti, Mira, 


S 


2 


10 


36 


3 


43 


59S. 




15 


219/ Ceti, 


2 


2 


30 


38 





23 


15S. 




15 


220's Ceti, 


J 


2 


31 


31 


12 


34 


49S. 




16 


221 ':v Ceti, 


'. 


2 


34 


38 


2 


31 


57 




20 


222^ Persei, 
223!^ Ceti,Menkar, 


J 


2 


52 


13 


52 


50 


46 




20 


c 


2 


53 


33 


3 


25 


54 




21 


224;^ Persei, Algol, 


var 


2 


56 


52 


40 


18 


30 




23 


225 k Fornax Chemica, 


3 


3 


5 


20 


29 


39 


SOS. 




23 


226;^ Eridani, 


3 


3 


7 


31 


9 


26 


31S. 




25 


227 h Persei, Algeneb, 


2 


3 


12 


26 


49 


15 


38 




27 


228 1« Endani. 


3 


3 


25 


32 


10 


1 


26S. 




29 


229 cT Persei, 

230 cT Eridani, 


3 


3 


31 


4 


47 


14 


54 




30 


3 


3 


35 


31 


10 


20 


16S. 




31 


231 « Pleiades, Alcyone, 


3 


3 


37 


34 


23 


35 


4 






83'< 


{|^ Persei. 


""3 


T 


44 





sT 


23 


26 


"j^T 


~1 



TABLE III. 

Exhibiting the Sun's Right Ascension, in Time, for everj aay m the 
year. 



I" 


January. 


February. 


March. 


April. 


May. 


June. 


j2 




h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 1 h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h.. m. s. 




I 


18 46 21 


20 58 43 22 47 51 


41 25 


2 32 36 


4 35 .4 


1 


2 


18 50 46; 21 2 47 22 51 35 


45 3; 2 36 25 


4 39 19 


2 


3 


18 55 1121 6 50 22 55 19 


48 42 2 40 14 


4 43 25 


3 


4 


18 59 35 21 10 53 22 59 3 


52 20: 2 44 4 


4 47 31 


4 


5 


19 3 59 21 14 54 23 2 45 


55 59| 2 47 55 


4 51 38 


5 


6 


19 8 22:21 18 55 23 6 28 


59 57i 2 51 46 


4 55 45 


6 


7 


19 12 45 21 22 55 23 10 10 


1 3 16, 2 55 37 


4 59 52 


7 


8 


19 17 7,21 '2Q 54 23 13 52 


1 6 561 2 59 30 


5 3 59 


8 


9 


19 21 29 21 30 53 23 17 33 


1 10 35 3 3 22 


5 8 7 


9 


10 


19 23 50^31 34 50 23 21 14 


1 14 15 3 7 16 


5 12 15 


10 


11 


19 30 11:21 38 47 23 24 54 


1 17 55; 3 11 10 


5 16 24 


11 


12 


19 34 31 21 42 43 23 28 35| 1 21 35| 3 15 4 


5 20 32 


12 


13 


19 38 50 21 46 38 23 32 14 1 25 15 3 19 


5 24 41 


13 


14 


19 43 9:21 50 33 23 35 54 1 28 561 3 22 55 


5 28 50 


14 


15 


19 47 27'21 54 27 23 39 34 


1 32 38, 3 26 52 


5 32 59 


15 


16 


19 51 45^21 58 20 23 43 13 


1 36 19 


3 30 49 


5 37 9 


16 


17 


19 56 122 2 12 23 46 52 


1 40 1 


3 34 46 


5 41 18 


17 


18 


20 1822 6 4 23 50 31 


1 43 44 


3 38 44 


5 45 28 


18 


19 


20 4 33:22 9 55 23 54 9 


1 47 26i 3 42 43 


5 49 37 


19 


20 


20 8 48:22 13 45 23 57 48 


1 51 10 


3 46 42 


5 53 47 


26 


21 


20 13 2 22 17 35 1 26 


1 54 53 


3 50 42 


5 57 57 


21 


22 


20 17 15 22 21 24 5 4 


1 58 37 


3 54 42 


6 2 7 


22 


23 


20 21 27,22 25 13 8 43 


2 2 22 


3 58 44 


6 6 16 


23 


24 


20 25 39 22 29 1 12 21 


2 6 7 


4 2 45 


6 10 26 


24 


25 


20 29 50! 22 32 48 15 59 


2 9 53 


4 6 47 


6 14 35 


25 


26 


20 34 0:22 36 35 19 37 


2 13 39 


4 10 49 


6 18 44 


26 


27 


20 38 9:22 40 21 23 15 


2 17 25 


4 14 52 


6 22 54 


27 


28 


20 42 18 22 44 6 26 53 


2 21 12 


4 18 56 


6 27 3 


28 


29 


20 46 25 


30 31 


2 24 59 


4 23 


6 31 11 


29 


30 


20 50 32 


34 9 


2 28 47 


4 27 4 


6 35 20 


30 


31 


20 54 38 




37 47 




4 31 8 




31 



TABLE III.— Continued. 



1 


July. 


August. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1 




h. m. s. 


h m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. 8. 


h. m. s. 




1 


6 39 28 


8 44 22 


10 40 30 


12 28 35 


14 24 45 


16 28 29 


1 


2 


6 43 36 


8 48 15 


10 44 8 


12 32 12 


14 28 41 


16 32 48 


2 


3 


6 47 44 


8 52 7 


10 47 45 


12 35 50 


14 32 37 


16 37 8 


3 


4 


6 51 52 


8 55 59 


10 51 22 


12 39 28 


14 36 34 


16 41 29 


4 


5 


6 55 59 


8 59 50 


10 54 59 


12 43 6 


14 40 32 


16 45 50 


5 


6 


7 6 


9 3 40110 58 36 


12 46 45 


14 44 30 


16 50 12 


6 


7 


7 4 12 


9 7 30 


11 2 12 


12 50 24 


14 48 3016 54 34 


7 


8 


7 8 18 


9 11 19 


11 5 48 


12 54 4 


14 52 3016 58 57 


8 


9 


7 12 24 


9 15 8 


11 9 24 


12 57 44 


14 56 31 17 3 20 


9 


10 


7 16 30 


9 18 56 


11 13 


13 1 24 


15 34 17 7 44 


10 


11 


7 20 35 


9 22 44 


11 16 36 


13 5 515 4 37 17 12 9 


11 


12 


7 24 39 


9 26 31 


11 20 12 


13 8 47J15 8 41 17 16 33 


12 


13 


7 28 43 


9 30 18 


11 23 48 


13 12 29' 15 12 45 17 20 58 


13 


14 


7 32 47 


9 34 4 


11 27 23 13 16 1215 16 51 17 25 24 


14 


15 


7 36 50 


9 37 49 


11 30 59 13 19 55|l5 20 57117 29 49 


15 


16 


7 40 53 


9 41 34 


11 34 3413 23 38 15 25 5' 17 34 15 


16 


17 


7 44 55 


9 45 19 


11 38 10 13 27 23 15 29 13: 17 38 41 


17 


18 


7 48 57 


9 49 3 


11 41 45 13 31 8 15 33 22,17 43 8 


18 


19 


7 52 58 


9 52 46 


11 45 21,13 34 5315 37 32,17 47 34 


19 


20 


7 56 59 


9 56 29 


U 48 56 13 38 3915 41 4217 52 1 


20 


21 


8 59'10 12 


11 52 32 


13 42 26 15 45 5417 56 27 


21 


22 


8 4 5910 3 54 


11 56 8 


13 46 13 15 50 618 54 


22 


23 


8 8 58;10 7 35 


11 59 43 


13 50 115 54 19,18 5 21 


23 


24 


8 12 56110 11 16 


12 3 19 


13 53 50 15 58 33! 18 9 47 


24 


25 


8 16 54[10 14 57 


12 6 55 


13 57 3916 2 4718 14 14 


25 


26 


8 20 52 10 18 37 


12 10 31 


14 1 29 16 7 2! 18 18 40 


26 


27 


8 24 48110 22 17 


12 14 7 


14 5 20 16 11 18 18 23 7 


27 


28 


8 28 44il0 25 56 


12 17 44 


14 9 12 16 15 35118 27 33 


28 


29 


8 32 39110 29 35 


12 21 21 


14 13 4 16 19 5218 31 59 


29 


30 


8 36 34 10 33 14 


12 24 57 


14 16 57 16 24 10|l8 36 24 


30 


31 


840 28 


10 36 52 




14 20 51 


1 


18 40 50f 


31 









TABLE IV. 








Showmg the Right Ascension of the Mid-Heaven at 9 o'clock ia the 


evening, for every day in the year. 


1* 


January. 


February. 


INIarch. 


April. 


May. 


June. 


1" 


h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 




1 ' 3 46 21 


5 58 4? 


7 47 51 


9 41 25 11 32 36 13 35 14 


1 


2 


3 50 46 


6 2 47 


7 51 35 


9 45 3 11 36 25 13 39 19 


2 


3 


3 55 11 


6 6 50 


7 55 19 


9 48 42! 11 40 14 13 43 25 


3 


4 


3 59 35 


6 10 53! 7 59 3 


9 52 20 11 44 4 13 47 31 


4 


5 


4 3 591 6 14 54| 8 2 46 


9 55 59:11 47 55!13 51 38 


5 


6 


4 8 22 


6 18 551 8 6 28 


9 59 57,11 51 46|13 55 45 


6 


7 


4 12 45 


6 22 551 8 10 10 


10 3 16! 11 55 37 13 59 52 


7 


8 


4 17 7 


6 26 54 8 13 52 


10 6 56:11 59 30:14 3 59 


8 


9 


4 21 29 


6 30 53 8 17 33'10 10 35:12 3 22 


14 8 7 


9 


JO 


4 25 50 


6 34 50j 8 21 14!l0 14 15 12 7 16il4 12 15 


10 


Jl 


4 30 11 


6 38 47 


8 24 54|10 17 55' 12 11 10 


14 16 24 


11 


12 


4 34 31 


6 42 43 


8 28 35|10 21 35:12 15 4 


14 20 32 


12 


13 


4 38 50 


6 46 38 


8 32 14|l0 25 15112 19 


14 24 41 


13 


14 


4 43 9 


6 50 33 


8 35 54' 10 28 56112 22 55 


14 28 50 


14 


15 


4 47 27 


6 54 27 


8 39 34 10 32 38! 12 26 52 


14 32 59 


15 


16 


4 51 45 


6 58 20 


8 43 13110 36 19112 30 49 


14 37 9 


16 


17 


4 56 1 


7 2 12 


8 46 52 10 40 L 12 34 46 


14 41 18 


17 


18 


5 18 


7 6 4 


8 50 3110 43 44; 12 38 44 


14 45 28 


18 


19 


5 4 33 


7 9 55 


8 54 9 10 47 26' 12 42 43 


14 49 37 


19 


20 


5 848 


7 13 45 


8 57 43 10 51 10! 12 46 42 


14 53 47 


20 


21 


5 13 2 


7 17 35 


9 1 26 


10 54 53! 12 50 42 


14 57 57 


21 


22 


5 17 15 


7 21 24 


9 5 4 


10 58 37:12 54 42 


15 2 7 


22 


23 


5 21 27 


7 25 13 


9 8 43 


11 2 22 12 58 44 


15 6 16 


23 


24 


■5 25 39 


7 29 1 


9 12 21 


11 6 7il3 2 45 


15 10 26 


24 


25 


5 29 50 


7 32 48 9 15 59: 11 9 53 13 6 47 


15 14 35 


25 


26 


5 34 


7 36 35' 9 19 37 


11 13 39 13 10 49 


15 18 44 


26 


27 


5 38 9 


7 40 2li 9 23 15 


11 17 25 13 14 52 


15 22 54 


27 


28 


5 42 18 


7 44 6 9 26 53 


11 21 12: 13 18 56 


15 27 3 


28 


29 


5 46 25 


9 30 31 


11 24 59|13 23 


15 31 11 


29 


30 


5 50 32 


9 34 9 


11 28 47113 27 4 


15 35 20 


30 


31 


5 54 38 




9 37 471 


lis 31 S 




31 



TABLE IV.— Continued. 



s 


July. 


A-ugust 


Sept 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


A 




h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. m. s. 


h. rn. s. 


h. m. B. 


h. m. P. 




1 


15 39 28 17 44 22 


19 40 30 


21 28 35 


23 24 45 


1 28 29 


1 


2 


15 43 36 17 48 15 


19 44 8 


21 32 12 23 28 41 


1 32 48 


2 


3 


15 47 44 17 52 7 


19 47 45 


21 35 50 23 32 37 


1 37 8 


3 


4 


15 51 52 17 55 59 


19 51 22 


21 39 28 '23 36 34 


1 41 29 


4 


5 


15 55 59 17 59 50 


19 54 59 


21 43 6 23 40 32 


1 45 50 


5 


6 


16 6 18 3 40 


19 58 36 


21 46 45 23 44 30 


1 50 12 


6 


7 


16 4 12 18 7 30 


20 2 12 


21 50 24 23 48 30 


1 54 34 


7 


6 


16 8 18 18 11 19 


20 5 48 


21 54 4 23 52 30 


1 58 57 


8 


9 


16 12 24 18 15 8120 9 24 


21 57 44 23 56 31 


2 3 20 


9 


10 


16 16 30 18 18 56'20 13 


22 1 24 


34 


2 7 44 


10 


11 


16 20 35 18 22 44 20 16 36 


22 5 5 


4 37 


2 12 9 


11 


12 


16 24 39 18 26 31 20 20 12 


22 8 47 


8 41 


2 16 33 


12 


13 


16 28 43 18 30 18 20 23 48 


22 12 29 


12 45 


2 20 58 


13 


14 


16 32 47 18 34 4 20 27 23 


22 16 12 


16 51 


2 25 24 


14 


15 


16 36 50 18 37 49 20 30 59 


22 19 55 


20 57 


2 29 49 


15 


16 


16 40 53 18 41 34 20 34 34 


22 23 38 


25 5 


2 34 15 


16 


17 


16 44 55 18 45 19 20 38 10 


22 27 23 


29 13 


2 38 41 


17 


18 


16 48 57 18 49 3 20 41 45 


22 31 8 


33 22 


2 43 8 


18 


19 


16 52 58 18 52 46! 20 45 21 


22 34 53 


37 32 


2 47 34 


19 


20 


16 56 59 19 56 29 20 48 56 


22 38 39 


41 42 


2 52 1 


20 


21 


17 59 19 12 20 52 32 


22 42 26 


45 54 


2 56 27 


21 


22 


17 4 59 19 3 54 20 56 8 


22 46 13 


50 6 


3 54 


22 


23 


17 8 58 19 7 3520 59 43 


22 50 1 


54 19 


3 5 21 


23 


24 


17 12 56 19 11 16 21 3 19 


22 53 50 


58 33 


3 9 47 


24 


25 


17 16 54 19 14 57 21 6 55 


22 57 39 


1 2 47 


3 14 14 


25 


26 


17 20 52 19 18 37 21 10 31 


23 1 29 


1 7 2 


3 18 40 


26 


27 


17 24 48 19 22 17 21 14 7 


23 5 20 


1 11 18 


3 23 7 


27 


28 


17 28 44 19 25 56 21 17 44 


23 9 12 


1 15 35 


3 27 33 


28 


29 


17 32 39 19 29 35 21 21 21 


23 13 4 


1 19 52 


3 31 59 


29 


30 


17 36 34 19 33 14:21 24 57 


23 16 57 


1 24 10 


3 36 24 


30 


31 


17 40 28 


119 36 52 




23 20 51 




3 40 50 


31 



TABLE V. 

Exhibiting the Sun's Declination for every day in the year. 



l_ 


January. .February. 


March. 


April. 


May. 


June. 


1 




o / ft\o f If 


O / If 


o / // 


O / // 


o f II 




1 


23 1 52 17 8 57 


7 39 11 


4 27 37 


15 22 


22 1 44 


1 


2 


22 56 45 16 51 46 


7 16 22 


4 50 43 


15 18 26 


22 9 49 


2 


3 


23 51 10 16 34 18 


6 53 27 


5 13 44 


15 36 16 


22 17 30 


3 


4 


2-2 45 8 


16 16 32 


6 30 26 


5 36 39 


15 53 50 


22 24 48 


4 


5 


22 38 39 


15 58 29 


6 7 20 


5 59 28 


16 11 8 


22 31 43 


5 


6 


22 31 43 


15 40 11 


544 9 


6 22 11 


16 28 10 


22 38 14 


6 


7 


22 24 20 


15 21 36 


5 20 53 


6 44 48 


16 44 56 


22 44 21 


'7 


8 


22 16 31 


15 2 46 


4 57 34 


7 7 17 


17 1 25 


22 50 4 


8 


9 


22 8 16 


14 43 40 


4 34 10 


7 29 40 


17 17 37 


22 55 23 


9 


10 


21 59 34 


14 24 20 


4 10 43 


7 51 54 


17 33 32 


23 19 


10 


11 


21 50 27 


14 4 45 


3 47 13 


8 14 1 


17 49 10 


23 4 50 


11 


12 


21 40 55 


13 44 56 


3 23 40 


8 36 


18 4 30 


23 8 56 


12 


13 


21 30 57 


13 24 54 


3 5 


8 57 50 


18 19 31 


23 12 39 


13 


14 


21 20 34 


13 4 39 


2 36 28 


9 19 32 


18 34 14 


23 15 56 


14 


15 


21 9 47 


12 44 11 


2 12 49 


9 41 4 


18 48 39 


23 18 50 


15 


16 


20 58 35 


12 23 30 


1 49 9 


10 2 27 


19 2 45 


23 21 18 


16 


17 


20 47 


12 2 38 


1 25 27 


10 23 40 


19 16 31 


23 23 22 


17 


18 


20 35 


11 41 34 


1 1 45 


10 44 44 


19 29 58 


23 25 1 


18 


19 


20 22 37 


11 20 19 


38 3 


11 5 36 


19 43 6 


23 26 15 


19 


20 


20 9 51 


10 58 53 


S. 14 21 


11 26 18 


19 55 53 


23 27 5 


20 


21 


19 56 43 


10 37 17 


N. 9 20 


11 46 48 


20 8 20 


23 27 30 


21 


22 


19 43 12 


10 15 31 


33 1 


12 7 8 


20 20 26 


23 27 29 


22 


23 


19 29 19 


9 53 36 


56 41 


12 27 15 


20 32 12 


23 27 4 


23 


24 


19 15 4 


9 31 31 


1 20 18 


12 47 10:20 43 36 


23 26 15 


24 


25 


19 28 


9 9 19 


1 43 54 


13 6 52'20 54 40 


23 25 


25 


26 


18 45 31 


8 46 58 


2 7 28 


13 26 21121 5 21 


23 23 21 


26 


27 


18 30 14 


8 24 59 


2 30 58 


13 45 37 21 15 41 


23 21 17 


27 


28 


18 14 37 


8 1 53 


2 54 26 


14 4 40 21 25 38 


23 18 48 


28 


29 


17 58 40 




3 17 50 


14 23 28 21 35 14 


23 15 55 


29 


30 


17 42 24 




3 41 10 


14 42 2 21 44 27 


23 12 38 


30 


31 


17 25 50 




4 426 




21 53 17 




31 



TABLE v.— Continued. 



1 


Julj. 


August. 


Sept. 


Oct Not. 


Dec. 


1 




o ; ff o 1 II 


o / no 1 ii\o 1 ii\o 1 II 




1 


23 8 56 18 6 40 


8 23 33 3 5 22 14 22 1921 47 34 


1 


2 


23 4 49 17 51 30 


8 1 44 3 28 40 14 41 30 21 56 46 


2 


3 


23 1917 36 2 


7 39 48; 3 51 56 15 27 22 5 34 


3 


4 


22 55 25' 17 20 17 


7 17 44' 4 15 9 15 19 9 22 13 55 


4 


5 


22 50 6 17 4 16 


6 55 321 4 38 20 


15 37 37 22 21 51 


5 


6 


22 44 24' 16 47 58 


6 33 14 


5 1 27 


15 55 49 22 29 21 


6 


7 


22 38 18 16 31 23 


6 10 49 


5 24 30 


16 13 45 22 36 25 


7 


8 


22 31 49 16 14 32 


5 48 18 


5 47 30 


16 31 25 22 43 2 


8 


9 


22 24 56 15 57 26 


5 25 41 


6 10 25 


16 48 48 22 49 12 


9 


10 


22 17 40 15 40 4 


5 iJ 59 


6 33 15 


17 5 55 22 54 55 


10 


11 


22 10 lil5 22 27 


4 40 11 


6 56 


17 22 43 23 11 


11 


12 


22 1 59 15 4 35 


4 17 18 


7 18 40 


17 39 14 23 5 


12 


13 


21 53 34| 14 46 29 


3 54 20 


7 41 14 


17 55 27 23 9 21 


13 


14 


21 44 46 14 28 8 


3 31 19 


8 3 41 


18 11 21 23 13 14 


14 


15 


21 35 37 il4 9 33 


3 8 13 


8 26 2 


18 i^^ 55 23 16 40 


15 


16 


21 26 5 13 50 45 


2 45 3 


8 48 16 


18 42 10 23 19 38 


16 


17 


21 16 11 13 31 43 


2 21 51 


9 10 22 


18 57 5 23 22 7 


17 


18 


21 5 55 13 12 28 


1 58 36 


9 32 21 


19 11 40 23 24 9 


18 


19 


20 55 18 12 53 1 


1 35 18 9 54 11 


19 25 54 23 25 42 


19 


20 


20 44 20 12 33 22 


1 11 58 10 15 52 


19 39 47 23 26 47 


20 


21 


20 33 112 13 30 


48 36 10 37 24 


19 53 19 23 27 24 


21 


22 


20 21 20 11 53 27 


25 13 10 58 47 


20 6 28 23 27 32 


22 


23 


20 9 20 11 33 13 


N. 1 49 11 19 59 


20 19 15 23 27 13} 23 


24 


19 56 59 11 12 48 


S.21 36 11 41 1 


20 31 40 23 26 24 24 


25 


19 44 19 10 52 12 


45 1'12 1 53 


20 43 42 23 25 8! 25 


26 


19 31 18; 10 31 26 


1 8 2712 22 33 


20 55 21 23 23 23i 26 


27 


19 17 59,10 10 31 


1 31 52 12 43 2 


21 6 36 23 21 10 27 


28 


19 4 20 


9 49 25 


1 55 1613 3 19 


21 17 27 23 18 29; 28 


29 


18 50 22 


9 28 10 


2 18 40 13 23 23 


21 27 S4 23 15 20: 29 


30 


18 36 6 


9 6 46 


2 42 2 13 43 15 


21 3" 56 23 11 43 30 


31 


18 21 32 


8 45 14 




14 2 54 




23 7 38 


31 



TABLE VI. 

Exhibitinff the Sun's mean place in the Ecliptic, or its Longitude, 
together with the Right Ascension, for every day in. tke year. 





January. 


February. 


March. 


April. 




Long, 


R. A. 


Long. 


R. A. 


Long. 


R. A. 


Long. 1 R. A. 




o / 


o / 


o / 


o / 


o ! 


/ 


r \ f 


1 


280 39 


281 35 


312 13 


314 41 


340 27!341 58 


11 16 10 21 


2 


281 41 


282 41 


313 14 


315 42 


341 28:342 54 


12 15 11 16 


3 


282 42 


283 48 


314 14 


316 42 


342 28|343 50 


13 14 12 10 


4 


283 43 


284 54 


315 15 


317 43 


343 28 '344 46 


14 13 13 5 


5 


284 44 


286 


316 16 


318 43 


344 28345 41 


15 12!.4 


6 


285 45 


287 5 


317 17 


319 44 


345 28 346 37 


16 llil4 54 


7 


286 46 


288 11 


318 17 


320 46 


346 28|347 32 


17 10 15 49 


8 


287 4^ 


289 17 


319 18 


321 44 


347 28 348 28 


18 916 44 


9 


288 49 


290 22 


320 19 


322 43 


348 27:349 23 


19 8 


17 39 


10 


289 50 


291 28 


321 19 


323 43 


349 271350 18 


20 6 


18 34 


11 


290 51 


292 33 


322 20 


324 41 


350 27;351 13 


21 5 


19 29 


12 


291 52 


293 38 


323 21 


325 40 


351 27 


352 9 


22 4 


20 24 


13 


292 53 


294 43 


324 21 


326 40 


352 27 


353 4 


23 3 


21 19 


14 


293 54 


295 47 


325 22 


327 38 


353 26 


353 59 


24 1 


22 14 


15 


294 55 


296 52 


326 22 


328 37 


354 26 


354 53 


25 00 


23 9 


16 


295 57 


297 56 


327 23 


329 35 


355 26 


355 48 


25 59 


24 5 


37 


296 58 


299 


328 23 


330 33 


356 25 


356 43 


26 57 


25 


18 


297 59 


300 4 


329 24 


331 31 


357 25 


357 38 


27 56 


25 56 


19 


299 


301 8 


330 24 


332 29 


358 24 


358 32 


28 54 


26 51 


20 


300 1 


302 12 


331 25 


333 27 


359 24 


359 27 


29 53 


27 47 


21 


301 2 


303 15 


332 25 


334 24 


000 24 


22 


30 51 


28 43 


22 


302 3 


304 19 


333 26 


335 21 


1 23 


1 16 


31 50 


29 39 


23 


303 i 


305 22 


334 26 


336 18 


2 22 


2 10 


32 48 


30 ^5 


24 


SO-t 5 


306 25 


335 26 


337 15 


3 22 


3 5 


33 47 


31 32 


25 


305 6 


307 27 


336 27 


338 12 


4 21 


4 


34 45 


32 28 


26 


306 7 


308 30 


337 27 


339 9 


5 21 


4 54 


35 43 


33 25 


27 


307 8 


309 32 


338 27 


340 5 


6 20 


5 49 


36 42 


34 21 


28 


308 9 


310 34 


339 27 


341 2 


7 19 


6 42 


37 40 


35 19 


29 


309 10 


311 36 






8 18 


7 38 


38 38 


36 1/? 


30 


310 11 


312 38 






9 18 


8 32 


39 36 


37 la 


31 


311 12 


313 39 






10 17 


9 27 







TABLE VI.— Continued. 





May. 


June. 


July. 


August, 


5 


Long. 


R. A. 


Long. 


R. A. 


Long. 1 R. 


A. 


Long. 


R. A 




o / 


o ! 


o f 


o / 


o / o 


/ 


o / 


o f 


1 


40 34 


38 9 


70 25 


68 48 


99 4 99 


52 


128 40 


131 5 


2 


41 32 


39 6 


71 23 


69 50 


100 1 100 54 


129 37|132 4 


S 


42 31 


40 3 


72 20 


70 51 


100 59' 101 


56 


130 35 


1.33 2 


4 


43 29 


41 1 


73 18 


71 53 


101 56 102 58 


131 32 


134 


5 


44 27 


41 59 


74 15 


72 54 


102 53 104 





132 29 


135 


6 


45 25 


42 56 


75 12 


73 56 


103 50 105 


1 


133 27 


135 55 


7 46 23 


43 54 


76 10 


74 58 


104 47 106 


3 


134 24 


136 53 


847 21 


44 52 


77 7 


76 


105 44 107 


5 


135 22 


137 50 


9148 19 


45 6 


78 4 


77 2 


106 42 108 


6 


136 20 


138 47 


10J49 16 


46 49 


79 2 


78 4 


107 39 109 


7 


137 17 


139 44 


lljoO 14 


47 47 


79 59 


79 6 


108 36 110 


9 


138 15 


140 41 


12I51 12 


48 46 


80 56 


80 8 


109 33 111 


10 


139 12 


141 38 


13 


52 10 


49 45 


81 54 


81 10 


110 31 112 


11 


140 10 


142 34 


14 


53 e 


50 44 


82 51 


82 13 


111 28 113 


12 


141 8 


143 31 


15 


54 6 


51 42 


83 48 


S3 15 


112 25114 


13 


142 5 


144 27 


16^55 3 


52 42 


84 46 


84 17 


113 22 115 


13 


143 3 


145 24 


17 


56 1 


53 41 


85 43 


85 20 


114 20 116 


14 


144 1 


146 20 


18 


56 59 


54 41 


86 40 


86 22 


115 17 117 


14 


144 59 


147 16 


19 


57 57 


55 41 


87 37 


87 24 


116 14118 


15 


145 56 


148 12 


20 


58 54 


56 41 


88 35 


88 27 


117 111119 


15 


146 54 


149 7 


21 


59 52 


57 41 


89 32 


89 30 


118 9; 120 


15 


147 52 


150 3 


22 


60 50 


58 41 


90 29 


90 32 


119 61121 


15 


148 50 


150 58 


23 61 47 


59 41 


91 26 


91 34 


120 3 122 


14 


149 48 


151 54 


24|62 45 


60 41 


92 24 


92 36 


121 11123 


14 


150 46 


152 49 


25|63 43 


61 42 


93 21 


93 39 


121 581124 


14 


151 44 


153 44 


26 


64 40 


62 42 


94 18 


94 41 


122 55^125 


13 


152 42 


154 39 


27 


65 38 


63 43 


95 15 


95 43 


123 53 126 


12 


153 39 


155 34 


28 


66 35 


64 44 


96 13 


96 46 


124 50} 127 


11 


154 37 


155 29 


29 


67 33 


65 45 


97 10 


97 48 


125 48 128 


10 


155 35 


157 24 


80 


68 30 


66 46 


98 7 


98 50 


126 45,129 

127 421130 


9 


156 34 


158 18 


31 


69 28 


6'^ 47 






7 


157 32 


159 13 



TABLE VI.— Continued. 



September. 



October. 



November. 



December. 



Long. R. A. 



o f 

155 30 

159 28 

160 26 
16124 
162 22 

61163 20 

164 19 

165 17 

166 15 

167 14 

168 12 

169 11 

170 9 

171 8 
1 172 

173 

174 
18|175 
19176 
20 176 59 

177 58 

178 57 

179 56 

180 54 

181 53 

182 52 

183 51 

184 50 
185 

156 48 



Long. R. A. 



187 47 

188 46 

189 45 

190 44 
19143 

192 43 

193 42 

194 41 

195 40 

196 40 

197 39 

198 39 

199 38 



160 
161 2 

161 55 

162 51 

163 45 

164 39 

165 33 

166 27 

167 21 

168 15 

169 9 

170 3 

170 57 

171 51 200 38 

172 45 201 37 

173 391202 37 . 

174 32 203 361201 

175 26 204 36|202 

176 20 205 36|203 

177 14 206 35 204 



Long. R. A. 



187 
188 
188 
189 
190 
191 
192 
193 
194 
195 
196 
197 
198 
199 
199 
200 



178 81207 35 

179 2 208 35 

179 56 209 35 

180 50|210 3 

181 44 211 35 

182 38 212 34 

183 32 213 34 

184 261214 34 
IPS 20 215 34 
186 14216 34 

1217 34 



205 
206 
207 
208 
209 
210 
211 
212 
213 
214 
215 



218 34 

219 35 

220 35 

221 35 

222 35 

223 35 

224 36 

225 36 

226 36 

227 37 
128 37 

229 37 

230 38 

231 38 
39 



233 39 231 16 264 6 



234 40 



Long. R- A. 



216 11 

217 10 

218 9 
!19 8 

220 8 

221 8 

222 7 

223 8 

224 8 

225 8 

226 9 

227 10 

228 11 

229 13 



248 50 

249 51 

250 52 

251 5; 

252 54 

253 55 

254 56 

255 57 

256 58 

257 59 



258 
260 
261 

262 
230 14 263 



232 IS 265 



247 7 

248 12 

249 17 

250 22 

251 28 

252 33 

253 39 

254 44 

255 50 

256 55 

258 2 

259 8 

2 260 15 

3 261 21 
4|262 27 

263 34 
7|264 40 
8,265 47 
9:266 54 



235 41 233 20 266 

236 41234 23 267 

237 42 235 26 268 10^268 

238 43 236 28 269 ll!269 7 

239 43 237 31 270 12|270 14 

240 44 238 35 271 14'271 20 

241 45 239 38 272 15272 27 

242 45 240 42 273 16 273 34 

243 46 241 46-274 17 274 40 

244 47 242 50 275 18 275 47 

245 48 243 54!276 19,276 53 

246 49 244 58|277 21 278 

247 50 246 2 278 221279 6 
1279 23 280 U 



TABLE VIL 

l^ihibiting the Right Ascension and Declination of the Planets, and th« 
time of their passing the Meridian, for 1833. 



« 


rn 


Vbntts. 


Mars. 


JUPITKR. 


Saturn. 


^ 


R. as- 


Dec- 


Pass 


R. as- 


Dec- 


Pass 


R. as- 


Dec- Pass 


R.as- 


Dec- Pass 


^ 


>? 


cen- 


lina- 


Mer. 


cen- 


lina- 


Mer. 


cen- 


iina- iMer. 


cen- 


Iina- iMer. 


P 


sion. 


tion. 




sion. 


tion. 




sion. 


tion. i 


sion. 


tion. 1 






h. m. 


O ' 


h. m. 


h. m. 


O ' 


h. m. 


h. m. 


° ' h. m. 


h. m. 


o ' h. m. 


t^ 


1 


21 30 


16 44 


2 42 


3 13 


20 8 


824 


23 35 


4 6 4 46 


11 57 


2 48 17 6 


s 


7 


21 5« 


14 12 


2 44 


3 16 


20 22 


8 1 


23 38 


3 43 4 24 


11 57 


2 49 16 40 


,1 


13 


22 25 


11 27 


2 45 


3 21 


20 41 


7 4(1 


23 42 


3 18 4 1 


11 ^7 


2 51 16 14 


19 


$?2 51 


8 32 


2 46 


3 27 


21 4 


7 21 


23 46 


2 52 3 39 


11 56 


2 55 15 48 




25 


23 17 


5 31 


2 46 


3 35 


21 29 


7 3 


23 50 


2 24 3 18 


11 56 


3 15 22 


. 


1 


23 46 


1 54 


2 47 


3 44 


22 2 


6 44 


23 55 


1 49 2 55 


11 .55 


3 9 14 52 


^ 


7 


11 


1 14 


2 47 


3 54 


22 29 


6 2<J 


23 59 


1 19 2 35 


11 54 


3 17 14 27 


s 


13 


35 


4 2(1 


2 47 


4 4 


22 57 


6 16 


4 


47 2 16 


11 .53 


3 26 14 3 


^ 


19 


n 58 


72a 


2 47 


4 15 


23 24 


6 4 


9 


15; 1 58 


11 51 


3 36 13 38 


bk 


25 


1 22 


10 19 


2 48 


4 27 


23 50 


5 53 


14 


18i 1 40 


11 50 


3 47 13 14 


1 


1 37 


12 11 


2 48 


4 35 


24 5 


5 46 


17 


40 1 28 


11 49 


3 54 12 .53 


js 1 7 


1 59 


14 5;i 


2 4^ 


4 48 


24 27 


5 36 


23 


1 14 1 11 


11 47 


4 6 12 34 


2 13 


2 22 


17 22 


2 4^ 


5 1 


24 45 


5 28 


28 


1 48; 54 


11 45 


4 18 12 10 


^ 19 


2 43119 37 


2 4H 


5 15 


24 59 


5 19 


o;j3 


2 2i 


.3.S 


11 44 


4 29 11 46 




25 


3 3 


21 36 


2 46 


5 28 


25 9 


5 11 


038 


2 57 


21 


11 42 


4 40 11 23 




1 


3 24 


23 33 


2 42 


5 45 


25 16 


5 2 


45 


3 37 


2 


11 40 


4 53:10 56 


^ 


7 


3 40 


24 5:^ 


2:^6 


5 59 


25 16 


4 55 


50 


4 1123 43 


11 38 


5 2; 10 32 


J- 


13 


3 53 


25 51 


226 


6 14 


25 11 


4 47 


055 


4 44 23 26 


11 37 


5 ll'lO 9 


^ 


19 


4 1 


26 26 


2 13 


629 


25 2 


4 40 


1 1 


5 17123 9 


11 36 


5 19 


9 46 




25 


4 5 


26 33 


1 54 


6 44 


24 46 


4 33 


1 6 


5 50 22 52 


11 34 


5 25 


92a 


" 


1 


4 3 


26 8 


1 29 


6 59 


24 26 


4 2.5 


1 11 


6 2222 35 


11 34 


5 30 


8 .58 




7 


3 54 


25 4 


5« 


7 14 


24 


4 17 


I 16 


6 53;22 17 


11 :« 


5 -M 


8;i5 


1 


13 


3 42 


2:V22 


21 


729 


23 29 


4 8 


1 21 


7 23 


21 58 


11 .32 


5 36 


8 11 


19 


327 


21 ia 


23 37 


7 44 


22 52 


4 


1 26 


7 52 


21 40 


11 32 


5 37 


7 47 




25 

1 


3 15 


18 58 
16 45 


Si3 2 
22 25 


7 59 


22 11 


3 50 


1 31 


8 20 


21 20 


11 32 


5 36 


7 23 




3 fi 


8 16 


21 16 


3 39 


1 37 


8 51 


20 57 


11 32 


5 34 


6 54 


1 


7 


3 4 


15 2? 


21 59 


8 31 


20 23 


3 30 


1 41 


9 11 


20 37 


11 32 


5 30 


6 30 


13 


3 7 


14 5f 


21 39 


8 46 


19 26 


3 19 


1 46 


9 40 


20 17 


11 3.3 


5 24 


6 6 


19 


3 15 


14 44 


21 22 


9 


18 25 


3 9 


1 50 


10 2 


19 56 


11 34 


5 18 


542 




2g 


327 


15 6 


21 10 


9 15 


17 19 


2 59J 


1 54 


10 23 


19 35 


1135 


5 10 


5 18 



TABLE VII. for 1833— Contlnueu. 



•54 


m 


VEirtrs. 


Mass. 


H Jupiter. 


Saturn. 


R. as- 


Dec- Pass 


R. as- 


Dec- 


Pass 'R. as- 1 Dec- Pass 


U.as- 


Dec- 


Pass 






cen- 


lina- 1 Mcr. 


cen- 


lina- 


Mer.ii ccn- lina- iMer. 


c^n- 


lina- 


^.e«• 


1" 


sion 


lion, j 


sion. 


tion. 


Ision. lion. 


sioa. 


tion. 








h. in. 


o 'h. in. 


h. m. 


O ' 


h. m.'h. m.\° ' h. ni. 


h. m. 


O ' 


b m 




1 


3 42 


15 43 21 


9 29 


16 9 


2 48; 1 57 10 42 19 14 


11 36 


5 I 


4 55 


^ 


7 


3 59 


16 33 20 53 


9 43 


14 56 


2 33:2 110 59 18 53 


11 33 


4 50 


4 31 


3 


13 


4 19 


17 30 20 48 


9 58 


13 9 


2 '28^ 2 4 U 15 13 31 


11 39 


4 39 


4 9 


'^ 


19 


4 4U 


13 25 20 40 


10 12 


12 19 


2 18i 2 7,11 28 18 10 


11 41 


4 20! 3 46 


— 


25 

1 


5 3 
5 32 


19 17 20 45 


10 20 


10 56 


2 8 2 9,11 40 17 43 


11 43 


4 13 3 24 


20 6 20 4C 


10 42 


9 15 


1 56 


2 11 11 51 17 23 


11 45 


8 50i 2 59 


ta 


7 


5 53 


20 36 20 19 


10 50 


7 47 


1 47 


2 13 11 57 17 2 


11 47 


3 41 2 39 


3 


13 


6 21 


20 51 20 53 


11 10 


6 17 


1 38 


2 14 12 2 10 40 


11 50 


3 261 2 18 


S 


19 


6 52 


20 49 20 58 


11 24 


4 45 


1 30 


2 15 12 4 16 19 


11 52 


3 lo; 1 58 


•< 


23 

1 


7 20 


20 30 21 3 


11 38 


3 11 


1^ 


2 15^12 4 15 57 


\\ 55 


2 63 1 39 


7 53 


19 43 21 12 


11 55 


1 21 


1 13 


2 15 12 I 15 31 


11 53 


2 33' 1 16 


c 


7 


8 21 


18 42 21 19 


12 9 


15 


1 6 


2 14 U 56 15 9|12 


2 lOi 57 


§ 


13 


8 50 


17 22 21 20 


12 23 


1 51 


59 


2 13 11 43 14 40112 3 


1 53 


33 


S" 


19 


9 18 


15 45 21 33 


12 3S 


3 20 


51 


2 Hill 39 14 23112 6 


1 41 


19 


QD 


•25 


9 40 


13 51 21 39 


12 52 


5 2 


0« 


2 9^11 27,13 59[l2 8 


1 23 


1 




1 


10 14 


11 42 21 45 


13 7 


6 37 


37 


2 7111 14 13 35 12 11 


1 6 23 38 


« 


7 


10 41 


9 20 21 51 


13 22 


8 10 


30 


2 4 11 13 11 12 U 


43 23 19 


o 


13 


11 9 


6 43 21 50iil3 37 


9 43 


-23 


2 1 10 44 12 40 12 17. 


31-23 


« 


19 


11 36 


4 822 1 


13 52 


11 13 


16 


1 58 10 27 12 20,12 19 


15 -22 40 




25 

1 


12 3 


1 21 22 5 


14 8 


12 41 


9 


1 5510 lliU 54112 -22 


122 20 


12 35 


1 57' 22 10 


14 20 


14 19 


1 


1 52 


9 52 11 24 M2 25 


19 21 66 


g 


7 


13 2| 4 43'2'2 13 


14 43 


15 40 


•23 52 


1 49 


9 30 10 57 12 27 


34 21 34 




!3 


13 301 7 3«3i^ 17 


14 59 


10 57 


■23 44 


1 40 


9 '22 10 30 12 29 


47 21 12 


o 


19 il3 5SilO 13 22 2C 


15 10 


IS 9 


'23 30 


1 43 


9 9 10 3 12 32 


1 20 DO 


s 


25 
1 


14 27|12 53/22 23 


15.33 


19 15 


23 23 


1 41 


8 59 


9 35|12 34 


1 12,20 26 


il4 56iI5 17-22 27 


15 5! 


20 17 


•23 ^ 


I 40 


8 50 


9 8 


12 36 


1 2315^ 3 


a 


7 15 ^6:17 ^:22 31 


IG 9 


21 11 


23 12 


I 33 


8 45 


8 41 


12 37 


1 32119 38 


s 


13 116 57J19 21J22 35 


16 27 


21 59 


23 4 


i 37 


8 42 


8 14 


12 39 


I 40 19 13 


1 


19 .;i6 28120 651,22 40 


16 46 


•22 40 


•22 56 


1 37 


8 41 


7 47 


12 40 


1 47 IS 48 


25 


117 


122 8i22 45 


L: 5 


23 13 


22 4^ 


1 37 


8 44 


7 a) 


112 <l 


I 5&18 23 



TABLE VII. for 1836. 





« 


1 Vexcs. 


Mars. 


.Jlpiter. 


SATCR.V. 


lUas-i Ike- I'li.ss 


Jl HS- 


I»ec- l';ts.< 


lias- I»..'c- 


Fa-ss 


Il.a.s- Uec-I Pui 


e 


^ 1 c«'n jlwa- Mcr 


Cl-ll- 


liita 


.Mur. 


••.11- Iina- 


Mei. 


c.;ii- Iiii.i- 1 > :r. 


S 


^ 1 8iun.'lion. 


sitiii. 


(lull. 




fiiuii. liiiii. 




SI .11. , Line [ 




h. m.io ' h. It. 


h in. 


O ' 


U. III. 


II. 111. ' 


h. Ill 


1.. 111.!° !h. .n. 


t 


1 2!t is'vjl 17 1 37 


IS 3! 


21 5 


Si 40 


6 4S 23 4 


12 5 


14 9 10 3; :J 23 


5 2ij 3> '^i) 3 1 12 


IS 44 23 5.-,l.£5 47 


6 15 Si 7 1147 


14 10 10 35 19 11 


r l!J ^1 i \-* '-"J 1 J^ 


19 1 Zi .iirZi 41 


6 42 -Si 1 1 


11 21 


14 II 10 41 IS 3-2 


g 15 21 2(" 10 37 1 r.:i 


10 17 Si l|i-2:5 41 


6 411 2:1! 1 II 2 


14 12 10 45 K :« 


•5 


21) 21 fvi 14 3:J 1 5-5 


10 :il 22 39i-2:j 3S 


6 37 Si 17 10 40 


14 13;i0 4S 1: !5 




25 22 1? 12 2J 2 2 


10 50i-22 1 i^:} .V> 

r 1 


6 35 2J 20 10 •- 


^- '!jl7 5ti 




1 22 5*1 a 2 7 


'JO 13-20 57 'j:} .30 


6 .12 Si Si 


9 47 


14 15 !0 5:3 ',: 29 


X 


5 ^Ti S 7 12 y 


•Jii 2i; -211 \6'Zi 27 


3fl 23 25 


130 


14 15 10 -vJ 17 U 


S HI 2:{ ;«» 4 27 2 12 


■211 13 10 I9;-2:J Zi 


6 '2S Si St 


9 S 


11 15.10 M 1^ 51 


g 1.5 VfJ :.j 1 .nl 2 11 
5 2ii !:-> -in 2 17 


•211 5-' IS 17;2{ -20 


6 27 Si iK 


8 4> 


14 15! Ill -vj It". .'3.5 


21 n 


17 10 2J It; 


6 26 Si 29 


8 -27 


14 15; III .-,(1 li; 15 


fa. 


25 37; 3 Zi 2 IJ 


21 3'-' 


15 -y^-Si II 

j 


6 26 -23 30 


8 7 


II 15jlO 47 15 55 




1 U 50 5 59 2 21 


21 45 


11 42 '2J 7 


6 St; Si 31 


7 47 


M I5JI0 41 15 35 


. 


5 1 16 S 1 2 2:5 


21 57il3 30 ^r^ 4 


6 -26 Si 31 


7 32 


11 14 10 41 15 IS 


w 


1(1 1 3S 10 30 2 -2.1 


•22 13^12 17 •>2 50 


6 26 S^ 31 


7 12 


14 13110 [it] 11 5? 


S 


15 


2 1 12 52 2 -^ 


22 2^^ 


iti r.:i;2i 51 


6 27 23 31 


G 54 


II 13 10 :io N .3S 


s 


2i) 


2 2:{ 15 8 2 31 


22 42 


9 •2-.'-22 49 


6 ^S Si 31 


G 3.-. 


14 12. Ill 21 14 17 




25 


2 40 17 14 2 :i4 


22 57 


7 50r22 44 


2J 2J :30 


C 17 


14 10,10 IS 13 56 




T 


3 R 19 54 2 [i'.i 


iMT 


5 4>!22 37 


G 32 23 49 


5 52 


14 9' 10 8 13 -27 


=^ 


5 3 37 2! 15 2 42 


2i 20 


4 3i;22 Si 


6 31 -23 -2^ 


5 3S 


11 8:10 2 13 10 


10 4 1 22 44 2 4C. 


•Si 43 


3 1 122 27 


6 :j>; 23 aj 


5 21 


11 Gi 9 .54 12 49 


3- 15 


4 i-. 21 2 5(» 


2J 57 


1 •27122 -22 


G 30 28 24 


5 3 


11 5! 9 16 12 -2? 


< 


20 


4 4'.t i'l (1 2 M 


12 


(;i22 16 


6 42 23 i> 


4 47 


11 3; 9 3S 12 7 




25 


5 13 25 45 2 50 


21^ 


1 30i22 11 


6 45 23 19 


4 -.Mt 


14 2j 9 31 11 4( 




~ 


5 41 2tl 19 3 3 


43 


3 3..I22 4 


6 49 aj 15 


4 I't 


14 0! 9 -22 II •» 




6 


6 ^i". -2^ 3 


:>\ 


4 43:21 59 


6 52 2i 1 1 


3 5- 


13 5;»! 9 16 II 4 


►. 


10 


G 2J 2r. -^13 9 


1 ? 


6 12121 54 


G 55 -23 7 


3 42 


13 .5S| 9 9 10 13 


1 


15 


6 41 ^t; 111; 3 n 


1 22 


7 4i>;2l 4.S 


G 59 Si 2 


3-2; 


13 5»j! 9 2 10 22 


20 


7 fi •2') 40 3 13 


1 3f, 


9 5i2l 43 


7 3 -22 57 


3 01 


13 55 i 8 rn; I'l 1 




25 
1 


7 25 24 5^ 


3 13 


I 50 


10 2s;21 37 


7 7|-.^.5,, 


2 51 


13 51J 3 51 9 40 




7 5i 23 41 


3 11 


2... 


12 I0I2I -29 


7 13 2i 41 


23:5 


!3 5.3 3 45: 9 11 




& 


8 4 22 40 


3 S 


2 22 


13 20;2I -25 


7 17 22 35 


2 21 


13 .52; S 42 8 55 


2 


la 


9 19 21 J.* 


3 3-2 


2 3G 


il 3-2 !2I 20; 


7 21 -22 -27, 


2 5 


13 51 1 8 39 8 .•« 


s 


15 9 31 -Ji 25' 2 5*^1 


2 5l''!5 11|2I 14 


7 2f; -2,^ 19 


1 .'VI 


13 51! B 37 « 14 


a>l 3 41 19 2 4S| 


3 5:16 m:\ 9 


7 »» '22 9 


1 35 


13 51) 8 36, 7 &4 




:s 


8 45,17 W 


2;»1 


3 19 i 


17 47J; 


1 4J 


7 35,22 a 


I -20 


13 30' 8 36l 7 34 



TABLE VII, for 1S3G— Continued. 



ST. 




Venus. 


MaR3. 


Jl-piter. 


Sat. ■'UN. 




R as- Doc- 


Pass 


R ,is- Dec-: Pass 


Ras- 1)00-, Phs^ 


Ras- !.'r-c- Pass 


c 




Mcr 


c.Mi-:niii. jMor. 


■;;;;• |;"^^- i ^''^'' 


(■-•ii- lm:i- ; y\ct 


:i 


^Uiou. n.ui. 




sioiiMion, 




^Uin.Uun. ; 






li. iM. ' 


!i. Ill 


h. m.i '!h. liJl.. m.i° 'i. 1:1 


li. Ill ' " ' )i. m. 




1 


S 5:3 IG 29 


2 14 


3 37: 13 54 20 5> 


7 40 2! 47! 1 - 


13 .31..' S 30 7 Id 


•1' 


5 


3 52 15 39 


1 5> 


3 4S 19 35 20 53 


7 44 21 33i 5; 


13 50 3 33 55 


iu 


8 48 14 44 


1 34 


4 3 20 22 20 4>; 


7 49 21 27} 3." 


13 50 3 40 35 


■^ 


1") 


S 40 14 2 


i 7 


4 1^ 21 4 20 43 


7 54 21 15; 21 


13 511 3 43 10 




•A) 


S 2t) 13 35 


31 


4 32' 21 41 2(1 3-^ 


7 58 21 3: U :> 


13 51' S 47 5 57 




25 


8 17-13 2i;24 L 


4 47;22 13 20 33 


8 3 2u 50 23 41 


13 51, 8 ,52 5 33 




1 


7 59 13 24 '2:3 12 


5 7:22 5<j'20 20 


3 9 20 31 2.'1 2u 


,;. -.^ 


'9 5 11 


^ 


5 


7 5! 13 35 ■>:> 41. 


5 19' 23 (3 20 i^ 


3 13-0 1:0^3 11 


13 5.3 


9 5 4 50 


■« 


10 


7 41 13 54 22 24 


5 33^23 22211 U\ 


3 13 -(1 2-j 5'.i 


13 51 


9 13 1 33 


1 


15 


7 41 11 U;22 2 


5 47 23 33 211 li 


5 2-J 19 .y^2,^ 4! 


13 .51 


9 20 4 19 


-< 


•20 


7 43 11 3S^ 4t 


J, -3 40 -J 1 5 




13 57 


9 29 4 1 




2:-, 


7 4.> 14 5,-i 21 3n 


6 1: 


2.3 12.19 59 
23 37 19 51 


3 31,19 2-1 
3 37:19 2 


21 51 


i3 5S 
14 


9 3s^ 3 43 


~ 


1 


8 15 14 '21 Iti 


35 


9 51 3 17 


o 




8 10 15 17 21 lu 


(J 45 


23 31 19 50 


8 40 13 5( 


2: 39 


11 2 


10 u 3 3 


"= 


10 1 


S 23 15 1121 4 


59 


2} 19 


19 40 


3 4 1 i 1 S .•J5 


21 23 


14 4 


10 10 2 45 




1.5 


S 39 14 51 '21 


7 12 


•2:3 4 


19 33 


3 4-il3 21 


21 7 


11 


10 2r 2 27 


'S. 


20 


3 55 14 26 20 57 


7 25 


22 40 


19 20 


8 5213 7 


20 51 


14 7 


10 32 2 10 


tc 


•l'-> 1 9 13 13 4(J 20 r,(J 


7 37 


22 -ij 


.9 1. 


8 55:17 52 

1 


20 35 


14 9 


10 44: 1 52 




1 1 '.) 36' 12 A\ 20 ;", 


7 52 


21 55 


19 10 


9 017 37 


20 10 


11 12 


10 58- I 31 


v: 


5j 52 11 49 20 5:3 


3 1 


21 34 


19 3 


9 2' 17 2(i 


20 3 


11 II 


li 7 


I 17 


^ 


10 10 12 10 33 21.) :"> 


3 13 


21 


13 55 


9 5 17 M 


19 4''. 


4 10 


II !9 


59 


£ 


15 \ IU 32 9 tj ;20 5t; 


8 21 


20 3t3 


13 40 


9 3,17 2 


19 29 


l^ 13 


II 31 


42 




20 110 52 7 30 20 57 


8:3.5 


20 ti 


13 37: 


9 11 10 51 


19 12 


1 '20 


11 43; ij 




25 111 13 5 4tJ,2U 5-S 


3 45 


19 .35J13 2S 


9 13,10 41 


13 55 


123 


11 55j 7 


^ 


1 h 1 13 3 7'21 


3 59 


13 51' 13 14 


9 10' 10 29 


IS 30 


T^, 


!2 It 2.3 .39 


^ 


5 12 0; 1 31 2! 1 


9 11 


H i^'y 13 5I 


9 H 10 -l) 


l-^ 10 


1 2^ 


12 '20 ^J 26 




10 12 21: 33 21 3 


9 15 




9 19 iO 17 


17 5-; 


1 30 12 32 2:i 8 


s 


15 12 43: 2 40 21 5 


9 23 


17 27' 17 43! 


9 21 10 12 


17 40 


1 33 12 43 22 51 




20,13 5: 4 4-^21 7 


9 31 


17 0.17 31] 


9 22 10 S 


17 21 


1 35 12 50 22 ;'3 


z 


25J13 271 6 57 21 10 


9 37! 


10 37,17 13! 


9 -^5,10 0, 


17 2 


1 37 13 4 22 IG 
















^• 


I ^13 54 2-21 13 


n 45 iG 12 17 1! 


9 2.3' 10 5 I (J .39' 


1 40 13 |.-. 21 55 


c 


5 H 13 11 7 21 IG 


9 49,15 59 11; 50 


9 2:! 10 10 j;',' 


1 41 13 24 21 41 


c 


10 1 1 31; 13 5 21 20 


9 5^; 15 47 1^; 35 


9 23 10 3 10 3 11 4; 13 33 21 24 


C 


15 15 14 57 21 24 


9 57 15 39 Irt 13 


9 22 10 12 15 13 11 40 13 12 21 G 


i 


2fi 15 2M(3 41 21 29 10 u 15 3-^ IG 1 


9 22 10 17 15 22.11 4-!|13 50 20 4? 


C ! 


25, 


5 40,18 13,2 


1 U. 


U li 


15 42 


15 43. 


9 2U,10 21, 


15 21 


4 491 


13 58 


20 3f 





TABLE VIII. 








TABLE IX. 




To change degrees, minuies, and 


To chan 


ge hours, minutes, and 


seconds of ihe equator, or oi" 


second 


s, of 


sidereal time, into 


right ascension, into hours, mi- 


degrees, minuies, 


ind seconds. 


nutes, and seconds, of sidereal 


of the 


equator, or right 


ascen- 


lime. 


L.on. 










Deg. 


H. M. 


Deg'. 


11. M. 


i 


ll 


K 


i 


IMin. 


D. M. 


MIn. 


D. M. 


Mi. 


M. s. 


iMi. 


M. S. 


be 








Sec- 


M. s. 


Sec. 


M. 9. 


Bee. 


S. Th. 


Sec. 


S. Th. 


fi 


M S 


s 





Th. 


S. Th. 


Th. 


3. Tb. 


1 


4 


31 


2 4 


70 


4 40 


~~l 


15 


1 


15 


31 


7 45 


2 


8 


32 


2 8 


80 


5 20 


2 


30 


2 


30 


32 


8 


3 


12 


33 


2 12 


90 


6 


3 


45 


3 


45 


33 


8 15 


4 


16 


34 


2 16 


100 


6 40 


4 


GO 


4 


1 


34 


8 30 


5 


20 


35 


2 20 110 


7 20 


5 


75 


5 


1 15 


35 


8 45 


g" 


24 


36 


2 24 1 120 


8 


6 


90 


6 


1 30 


3G 


9 


7 


28 


37 


2 28 130 


8 40 


7 


105 


7 


1 45 


37 


9 15 


8 


32 


38 


2 32 


140 


9 20 


8 


120 


8 


2 


38 


9 30 


9 


36 


39 


2 36 


150 


10 


9 


135 


9 


2 15 


39 


9 45 


10 


40 


40 


2 40 


160 


10 40 


10 


150 


10 


2 30 


40 


10 


11 


44 


41 


2 44 


no 


11 20 


11 


165 


11 


2 45 


41 


10 15 


12 


48 


42 


2 48 


180 


12 


12 


180 


12 


3 


42 


10 30 


13 


52 


43 


2 52 


190!l2 40 


13 


195 


13 


3 15 


43 


10 15 


14 


56 


44 


2 56 200! 13 20| 


14 


210 


14 


3 30 


44 


11 


15 


1 


45 


3 210 


14 


15 


225 


15 


3 45 


45 


11 15 


ig" 


1 4 


4G 


3 4 220 


14 40 


16 


240 


16 


4 


46 


11 3' 


17 


1 8 


47 


3 81230 


15 20 


17 


255 


17 


4 15 


47 


11 4 


18 


1 12 


48 


3 12 


240 


16 


18 


270 


18 


4 30 


48 


12 (^ 


19 


1 16 


49 


3 16 


250 


16 40 


19 


285 


19 


4 45 


49 


12 \6 


20 


1 20 


50 


3 20 


260 


17 20 


20 


300 


20 


5 


50 


12 30 


21 


1 24 


51 


3 24 


270 


18 


21 


315 


21 


5 15 


51 


12 4j 


22 


1 28 


52 


3 28 


280; 18 40 


22 


330 


22 


5 30 


52 


13 ( 


23 


1 32 


53 


3 32 


290 19 20 


23 


345 


23 


5 45 


53 


13 IS 


24 


1 36 


54 


3 36 


300 20 0|24 


360 


24 


G 


54 


13 3( 


25 


1 40 


55 


3 40 


310,20 40:25 


375 


25 


G 15 


55 


13 4 


2G 


1 44 


56 


3 44 


320'2l 20,26 


390 


26 


6 30 


56 


14 


27 


1 16 


57 


3 48 


330 22 0.27 


405 


27 


G 45 


57 


14 1 


28 


1 52 


58 


3 52 


340 22 40 28 


420 


28 


7 


58 


14 3 


29 


1 5G 


59 


3 561350 23 20:29 


435 


29 


7 15 


59 


14 4 


30 


'^ 


60 


4 


360 


,24 


'30 


450 


30 


7 30 


60 


15 









TI 


^BLE 


X. 








TABLE Xi. 


Showing how many miles make a degree of lon- 


Of the Climates ov 


gitude, in every degree of latitude. 


tween the Equato 




and ilie Polar Cu 


De? 


Geo. 


1 En- sDeg. 


Geo. 


Eng. iDeg. 


Geo. 1 Eng. 


cies. 


Lac 


Miles. 
5999 


Miles. 


Lat. 


iMiles. 
51.43 


Miles 


Lau 


Miles 


Miles 




"T" 


69.06 


Tl" 


59.13 


61 


29.09 


33.45 


D ! B 


o.^^ 


C C8 


2 


59.9(j 


69.03 


32 


50.38 


&3.51 


62 


23.17 


32.40 


|o r? 


|=? 


fri 


3 


59.92 


63.97 


33 


50.32 


57.87 


63 


27.24 


31.33 




~'a 3 




59.85 


63.90 


34 


49.74 


57.20 


64 


26.30 


30.24 


i 5' 


^'A9 


l« = 


o 


59.77 


68.81 


35 


49.15 


56.51 


65 


25.36 


29.15 




a 


K> 


6 


59.67 


d3.62 


36 


43.54 


55.81 


66 


24.40 


28.06 




d. m. 


h. m. 


J 


7 


59.545 


63.48 


37 


47.92 


55.10 


67 


23.45 


26.96 


1 


S34 


12 30 


8 34 


8 


59.42 


63.31 


33 


47.23 


54.37 


68 


22.43 


25.85 


2 


16 44 


13 LX) 


8 10 


9 


59.26 


63.15 


39 


46.63 


53.02 


69 


21.50 


24.73 


3 


2412 


13 30 


728 


10 


59.U9 


67.95 


40 


45.96 


52.85 


70 


20.52 


23.60 


4 :3048 


14 00 


6 36 


11 


5S.S9 


67.73 


41 


45.23 


52.07 


71 


19.53 


22.47 


5 3631 


14 30 


5 43 


12 


&S.69 


67 43 


42 


44 59 


51.27 


72 


13.54 


21.32 


6 4124 


15 00 


4 53 


13 


5S.46 


67.21 


43 


43 83 


51146 


73 


17.54 


20.17 


7 i4532 15 30 


4 8 


U 


53.22 


66.95 


44 


43.16 


49.63 


74 


16M 


19.02 


8 :49 2 16 00 


3 30 


15 


57.95 


66.65 


45 


42.43 


43.78 


75 


15.53 


17.36 


9 5159 16 30 


2 57 


i6 


57.67 


66.31 


46 


41.68 


47.93 


76 


14.52 


16.70 


10 &4 30 17 00 


2 31 


17 


57.33 


65.93 ' 47 


40.92 


47.06 


77 


13.50 


15.52 


11 5633 17 30 


2 8 


13 


57.06 


65.62 


43 


40.15 


46.16 


78 


12.43 


14.35 


12 5627 ISUO 


1 49 


19 


56.73 


65.24 


49 


39.36 


45.26 


79 


11.45 


13.17 


13 5959 13 30 


I3i 


20 


56.33 


64.3i 


50 


33.57 


44.35 


80 


10.42 


11.98 


14 6118 19 00 


1 If 


21 


56.01 


M.42 


51 


37.76 


43.42 


31 


9.33 


10.79 


15 6226 19 30 


1 £ 


22 


55.63 


63.97 


52 


36.94 


42.43 


82 


8.35 


9.59 


16 6322 20 00 


5t 


23 


55.23 


63 51 


53 


36.11 


41.53 


S3 


7.31 


8-41 


17 ;64 10 20 30 


46 


24 


51.81 


63.03 


M 


35.27 


40.56 


34 


6.27 


7.21 


13 16450 21 00 




25 i 


54.33 


62.53 


55 


34.41 


39.53 


85 


5.22 


6.00 


19 6522 21 30 


3- 


26 : 53.93 


62.02 


56 


3:3.53 


38 5S 


86 


4.18 


4.81 


20 16548 22 00 


2t 


27 53.4(3 


61.48 


57 


32. 6S i 37.53 


87 


3.14 


3.61 


21 66 5 22 30 


1; 


2S ' 52.97 


60.93 


53 


31.79 j 36.57 


88 


2.09 


2.41 


22 6621 2:^00 


1( 


2S 52.43 


^1.35 


59 


30.90 35.54 


89 


1.05 


1.21 


23 6629; 23 30 




JSf 


51.96 


59.75 


60 


30.00 1 


34.50 J 


90 


000 


0.00 


24 


6632124 00 





TABLE XIL 
Of the Climates between the Polar Circles and the Poles. 



'Where the Breadths 



Lat. 

(1 m. 
67 IS 
69 30 
73 6 



30 or 1. 
60 2. 
90 a 



Climates, pates. 



Where the Breadths 



77 40 r20or4 
82 50 150 5 
90 00 I 180 6 



2e» 



TABLE XiH. 

Showing the Latitude and Lonfrmide of some of the principal places m 
ilie United Stales, &c., with their Distance from ilic city of Wash- 
ington. 

The Longitudes arc reckoned from Grccnicizk. 

TJu Capitals {scats oj Government) of the States and 'J'crritorics are 
designated by Italic letters. 





:I.;iiiiii.le| l.«>iii::iiii 


e, \Vo.<t, 


Dist from 






Nonli. in.U-.ces 


ill lime. 


Wa.sli n. 




O ' " 


O ' " 


Ii.iii. P. 


iiiil.->s 


Albany (Capkol), . 


N. Y. '42 30 3 


73 41 49 


4 51 50.3 


370 


Alf-xiin.ina, .... 


I>. C. 'S-i iO 


77 4 


5 8 IG 


6 


An/tui'uUSf . . . . 


Mil. 39 


7G 43 


5 6 52 


37 


Aul.ma, .... 


N. Y. 4J 55 


7G 2S 


5 5 52 


339 


Al.^ust:^ 


(.'a. 3.J l-^ 


SI :a 


5 27 3G 


5-^ 


Aii^'H^siu (Siafft rimisc), 


jNIo. 4t IS 43 


\ GO .50 


4 30 20 


50.5 


ItaliiiiMr..- (l{ari|.-M..iminent), 


M.I. ,3'J 17 13 


7G 37 50 


5 G 31.3 


3S 


l{;ii,-nr(Ouin If..usc), . . 


Mo. 41 47 5( 


(iS 47 


4 35 8 


CGI 


U.ii iismble (Old Co\.in House), 


Ma.-^.'^. 4142 9 


70 !G 


4 41 4 


41-.6 


I^llavi;^ .... 


N. V. 4i> 50 


78 13 


5 12 52 


370 


H.-aiilort, 


S. C. -iZ '£■) 


80 41 


5 22 44 


6-29 


B(.s/<m (Sfato House), . 


Ma.-s. ^2 2\ 15 


71 4 9 


4 44 IG.r. 


432 


I!risi(.|(l!.,i,.|), . 


II. I. 


4 1 30 5S 


7; 10 


4 45 30 


41 K) 


Iliuuklvu (Navy Yard), ' , 


N. Y. 


40 41 50 


73 50 30 


4 55 5.S 


227 


ynmswick (Collosje),- 


Me. 


43 :>) u 


GO 55 1 


4 30 40.1 


r,GS 


furtal.), 


K. Y. 


42 :ii 


7S 55 


5 15 40 


37G 


UHiiil.ri.l^'c (Harvard Hall), . 


Ma.<s. 


42 22 15 


71 7 25 


4 41 20.7 


431 


Uaiii leii, .... 


S. C. 


34 17 
4i 54 


8(J 30 
77 17 


5 22 12 
5 8 


4G7 


I'anau'laimia, . . . . 


N Y 


3:jG 


L;a|.r (-...I (Ij^tilHouse), . 


Ma.-^.s. 


42 2 IG 


70 4 


4 40 IG 


507 


31ia.l.-si..ii (College). 


s=. C. 


3>2 47 


HO ry2 


5 20 3.5 


5U 


'Jliatlt>:jii.\vu v,Navy Yard), . 


Ma.<s. 


42 22 


71 3 33 


1 41 112 


4:J:j 


Jiiniiiiiati, .... 


Ohio. 


30 G 


SI 2Z 


5 37 2S 


407 


Col, tm hi a, .... 


S C. 


a3 57 


81 7 


5 21 2S 


500 


Volumhus, .... 


Olllo. 


30 47 


&3 3 


5 32 12 


S'.Hi 


Voun.rd (Slato House), 


N. H. 


43 12 29 


71 JO 


4 45 r,G 


474 


J.vlliaiii (Couri House), . 


Ma.-;s. 


42 IG 


71 11 


4 41 41 


4>2 


D'.troit, .... 


Mich. 


12 24 


82 58 


5 31 52 


WM 


U»nahtsonville, 


I. a. 


.•}il 3 


01 2 


G 4 3 


127S 


> >rcliester (AsL Obscr\'atory), 


Ma.ss 


42 10 15 


71 4 15 


4 44 17 


4:i2 


Uortr, .... 


D.-l. 


30 10 


75 30 


5 2 


III 


>..v.T, 


N II. 


43 13 


70 5^1 


4 43 M 


400 


•^asion (Court House) 


M.I. 


3S 4G 10 


7G 8 


5 4 32 


80 


vistiH.rt, 


M.;. 


44 ^ 


GG 5)3 


4 27 44 


778 


vli-iiion, .... 


N. C. 


3G 


77 7 


5 28 '£i 


^ 


ivi'T, 


N. H. 


42 .-JS 


70 5.5 


4 43 40 


474 


'•\unkfort, .... 


Ky. 


.3S 1 { 


W 40 


5 3S 40 


551 


^ro.lfficksburg, 


\i. 


as 31 


77 :{S 


5 10 32 


56 


^•edp.Tickton, 


N JJ 


4<5 3 


(X, 55 


4 27 




're io rick sic wn, 


M.I. 


30 2\ 


77 IS 


5 9 12 


43 


Jeor':ut»)\v7i, .... 


S C. 


Zi 21 


79 17 


5 17 8 


482 


Jlou'osior, .... 


Mass 


42 3G 


70 40 


4 42 40 


4G2 


^recuficki, .... 


Mass. 


42 37 


72 3G 


4 5*5 24 


306 


tagrra . Mm, .... 
N^2aj^ .... 


M.|. 


39 37 


77 35 


5 10 2f» 


C8 


N. 8 


44 39 20 


G3 36 40 


4 14 27 


436 


1 ^ ^ 




U3- 









r RD-107 



TABLE XIII.-~Contmue(L 







I^atitude 


Longitude, West, 


DlSL Tfom 






North. 


indegrces. 


in time. 


Waah'n 




O ' '/ 


f ff 


h.m. s. 


luiles. 


rrallowell, 


Me. 


44 17 


69 50 


4 39 30 


59:i 


J farnt-hirgh, 


Pa. 


40 16 


70 50 


5 7 20 


110 


llurijurd,. .... 


Conn. 


41 46 


72 50 


4 51 20 


335 


Hu.ls.,n/ .... 


N. V. 


42 14 


73 46 


4 55 4 


Zi5 


Iluiiisvillc 


Ala. 


34 36 


60 57 


5 47 48 


T26 


Indianapoliai 


Ind. 


30 55 


86 5 


5 44 20 


573 


Jacksun, . ' . . . . 


M'pi. 


»i 2:3 


90 8 


6 32 


1035 


Ji^Jff.rsvn, .... 


Mri. 


3S 30 


92 8 


6 8 32 


980 


Kounel.unk, .... 


Me. 


43 25 


70 32 


4 42 8 


51 3 


Kingston, .... 


U. C. 


44 8 


76 40 


5 6 40 


466 


Ki...xvillc, .... 


Tcnn. 


35 59 


83 54 


5 35 36 


516 


l.aiicasivr, .... 


Pa. 


40 2 30 


70 20 33 


5 5 22.2 


109 


LoAiimton, .... 


Ky. 


38 6 


84 18 


5 37 12 


5b4 


Little Rock, 


Ark. 


31 40 


92 12 


8 48 


1068 


Lnckport, 


N. Y. 


43 11 


78 40 


5 15 4 


403 


1>..,|1SV1||0, .... 


Ky. 


33 3 


85 30 


5 42 


590 


I,<)\v.>ll (Sl. Ann's Church), . 


Mass. 


42 33 45 


71 18 45 


4 45 15 


439 


Lyiicliburgh, 


Va. 


37 30 


79 22 


5 17 28 


198 


1. villi, 


Mass. 


42 28 


70 57 


4 43 48 


441 


Miiil.lelioad, 


Mass. 


42 30 


70 ,52 


4 43 2S 


450 


Mi.l.ll.'iowii, .... 


Conn. 


41 34 


72 39 


4 50 36 


325 


nii/ZtdsetiUe, 


Ga. 


33 7 


83 20 


5 33 20 


W2 


A'ol.iloT . . - . . 


Ala. 


30 40 


S3 11 


5 52 44 


1033 


Monipelier, .... 


Vt. 


44 17 


72 30 


4 50 24 


524 


Mnnoiii'iy Toint Light, . 


Ma.ss. 


41 32 53 


70 1 31 


4 40 0.1 


5(K) 


Mr. Ill real, .... 


L. C. 


45 31 


73 35 


4 54 20 


601 


N:uimck.n (Town Hall), . 


Mass. 


41 10 32 


70 7 42 


4 40 30.8 


500 


Niifhrillb, .... 


T.Min. 


30 9 30 


80 49 3 


5 47 10.2 


714 


Nau-licz (Castle), . 


M'pi. 


31 34 


91 21 42 


5 3S.8 


1146 


Ncvvaik, .... 


N.J. 


40 45 


74 10 


4 56 40 


215 


Now iJe.lford (Mariners' Ch.), 


Mass. 


41 38 7 


70 50 


4 43 44 


429 


Niusi»erii, .... 


N. C. 


35 20 


77 5 


5 8 20 


337 


Nowivurih, .... 


N. Y. 


41 31 


74 1 


4 56 4 


2SQ 


IS'o\viiiiry|)ori (2d Pres. Ch.), 


Mass. 


42 48 29 


70 52 


4 43 28 


466 


Newcastle, .... 


Del. 


39 40 


75 a3 


5 2 8 


103 


New Ilaren (College), . 


Conn. 


41 17 58 


72 57 46 


4 51 51.1 


301 


New I.Dii'loii, .... 


Conn. 


41 22 


72 9 


4 48 36 


STA 


New Orleans (City), . 


La. 


29 57 45 


90 6 49 


6 27.3 


im 


Neirport 


R. I. 


41 29 


71 21 14 


4 45 24.9 


403 


New York (City Ha)!), . 


N. Y. 


10 42 40 


74 I 8 


4 56 4.5 


226 


Norfolk (Fanner's Bank"), 


Va. 


36 50 50 


70 18 47 


5 5 15.1 


217 


Nonhaiiipton (Mansion lIouse\ Mass. 


42 13 55 


72 40 


4 50 40 


376 


NorwicS 


Conn. 


41 33 


72 7 


4 48 28 


362 


Pensacoia, .... 


Fa. 


30 28 


87 12 


5 48 48 


1050 


Petersburgh, .... 


Va. 


37 13 54 


77 20 


5 9 20 


144 


Philadelphia (Independence II. 


),Pa. 


39 55 59 


75 10 59 


5 43.9 


136 


Pittsburgh .... 


Pa. 


40 32 


30 8 


5 20 32 


223 


Pittsfield, (Isl Cong. Church), 


Mass. 


42 26 59 


73 17 30 


4 53 10 


380 


Piatt sb 11 rgh, .... 
Plymouth *Conrt Housed . 


N. Y. 


44 42 


73 26 


4 53 44 


539 


Mass. 


41 57 12 


70 42 30 


4 42 50 


^39 


Portland (Town IlouseX ' 


Me. 


43 39 26 


70 20 30 


4 41 22 


&43 


Portsmouth (Court House), 


Nil. 


43 4 M 


70 45 


4 43 


491 


Pno^hkeepsie, 


N. Y. 


41 41 


n55 


4 bo 40 


901 


Prmceum. 


N. i. 


40 22 


74 35 


4 mw 


m 



TABLE Xlll.-Contmued. 







lAmxida 


Ix)ngitud«, West, 


Diet from 






North. 


in degrees. 


in tune. 


Wash-n. 




O ' " 


O ' " 


h.in. s. 


uiilos. 


i>r9videncc (OM Col), . 


. R.I. 


41 49 25 


71 25 56 


4 45 43.7 


301 


Queoec (Castle), 


L. C. 


4G 47 17 


70 56 31 


4 43 40.1 


781 


KaleAgL, .... 


. N. C. 


3.-) 47 


78 48 


5 15 12 


286 


Rickmund (Capitol), . 


Va. 


37 32 17 


77 20 28 


5 9 49 9 


12:2 


Rocliester (R'r House), . 


. N. Y. 


43 8 17 


77 51 


5 1! 24 


301 


Sable (Ca|)eX 


Fa. 


24 50 


81 15 


5 25 




Sackeil'tj Harbour, . 


N. Y. 


43 55 


75 57 


5 3 43 


407 


Saco, .... 


Me. 


43 31 


70 26 


4 41 44 


528 


St. Augustine, . 


. Fa. 


29 43 30 


81 35 


5 26 20 


841 


St. Ixjuis, 


M'ri. 


38 30 


80 36 


5 53 24 


850 


SaleitKE. I.M.IIaU), 


. Mass. 


42 31 19 


70 54 


4 43 36 


446 


Savannah, 


Ga. 


;}2 2 


81 3 


5 21 12 


602 


Sclieneciady, . 
Snringficlil (Court House), 
TaUuhussee, . 


. N. Y. 


42 43 


73 55 


4 55 40 


391 


Mass. 


42 5 58 


72 36 


4 50 'il 


357 


. Fa. 


30 28 


&1 36 


5 33 24 


896 


Taunton (Court House), 


Mass. 


41 54 9 


71 50 


4 44 20 


415 


Toronto (York), 


. II. C. 


43 33 


79 20 


5 17 20 


500 


Trencon, 


N.J. 


40 14 


74 39 


4 (^36 


106 


Troy, .... 


. N. Y. 


42 44 


73 40 


4 54 40 


3S3 


Tuscaloosa, . 


Ala. 


a3 12 


67 42 


5 50 48 


858 


'■ University of Virginia, . 


. Va. 


;i3 2 3 


78 31 29 


5 14 5.9 


124 


- Uiica (Dutch Church), 


N. Y. 


43 C 49 


75 13 


5 52 


333 


1 Vandalia, 


. 11. 


3.3 5-^ 


89 ^ 


5 56 8 


781 


1 Vevay, .... 


Ind. 


38 46 


ai 59 


5 39 56 


556 


' Vincenncs, 


. Ind. 


a3 43 


87 25 


5 49 40 


1093 


i Washington, (Capitol), 


. D. C. 


33 52 54 


77 1 48 


5 8 7.2 




1 Washington, . 


. M'pi. 


31 36 


91 20 


6 5 20 


14G 


t Wheehng, . 


. Va. 


40 7 


80 42 


5 22 48 


264 


' Wilmington, 


. Del. 


39 41 


75 28 


5 1 52 


108 


! Wilmington, . . . 


N. C. 


34 11 


78 10 


5 12 40 


416 


■ Worcester f Ant HsJl)^ . 


. Mass. 


42 16 9 


71 49 


4 47 10 


3M 


'York, .... 


. Me. 


43 10 


70 40 


4 42 40 


600 


: York, ... 


. Pa. 


39 68 


76 40 


5 6 40 


© 



LBJe'04 






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